tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-70979267751633323262024-03-16T23:53:37.141-07:00Know Your HeritageDiscovering the Temple Art, Architecture, Culture, History and Traveliramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.comBlogger89125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-86377928219230470262019-04-13T03:46:00.000-07:002019-04-13T03:46:18.595-07:00Rama Navami Celebrations: Popular Festivals Explained for Kids<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Rama Navami is a major Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Shri Rama also known as Shri Ramachandra. Shri Rama is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. The Rama Navami or the birthday of Shri Rama falls on a propitious day when Punarvasu <span style="font-size: x-small;">(புனர்பூசம்)</span> star and the Navami <span style="font-size: x-small;">(நவமி)</span>, the ninth lunar day of waxing moon period get together in the Tamil month of Panguni <span style="font-size: x-small;">(பங்குனி)</span> (English Month: March - April). This post details an overview of this festival for kids.<br />
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The god Vishnu is part of the Hindu Trinity, along with Shiva and Brahma. Hindu Sages believed that on any occasion virtue declines and the unjust proliferates, Lord Vishnu will assume an incarnation to eradicate evil forces and to establish righteousness. Lord Vishnu made his seventh incarnation as Shri Rama to establish righteousness.</div>
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Dasaratha belongs to Ikshvaku dynasty and ruled his country Ayodhya. Queen Kausalya was the chief-queen of Dasharatha. The other queens were Kaikeki and Sumitra. The couple was suffering from childlessness. The king conducted the Ashwamedha Yagna and the Putra Kameshti ritual for the purpose of obtaining progeny. On the ninth day of the month of Chithirai (Hindu Calendar: Chaithra), when the Punarvasu star was ascendant when the planets Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Venus were at their exaltation when Jupiter and moon were ascendant in the sign of Cancer, Queen Kausalya gave birth to Shri Rama. The child possessed all divine virtues. It was like a dream come true for the royal couple. It was also a joyous occasion for the citizen of Ayodhya. Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughan were his brothers. He married Sita, the princess of Mithila country and the elder daughter of King Janaka. Valmiki Ramayana narrates the epic biography of Shri Rama. He is the most widely celebrated for his victory over Ravana, the demon ruler of Lanka. The victorious Shri Rama was crowned as the king of Ayodhya. Even now his rule is being exalted as "Rama Rajyam," the virtuous country of Shri Rama.</div>
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Rama Navami Celebrations<br />
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How Rama Navami is being celebrated? The festival is being celebrated during the spring season <span style="font-size: x-small;">(வசந்த ருது)</span>. Vaishnavite tradition observes this festival as the most prominent one. The festival is also being celebrated as part of Vasanta Navratri <span style="font-size: x-small;">(வசந்த நவராத்திரி) </span>festivity. It is also known as Chaitra Navratri. Most of the schools and colleges allow their students to obtain optional leave. </div>
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The festival is being celebrated in Ayodhya, the birthplace of Shri Rama with religious fervor. Prominent temples like Sri Sita Ramachandraswamy temple, Bhadrachalam (Telangana) celebrates the celestial marriage of Shri Rama with his consort Sita (Sri Sitarama Thirukalyana Mahotsavam). The principal deity is Vaikuntha Rama, a form of Rama not found anywhere else in the country. Annual Brahmotsavam of this temple is being celebrated during this period in Bhadrachalam. Kodandarama Temple located Vontimitta town in Rajampet taluk of Kadapa District, Andhra Pradesh, celebrates Shri Rama Navami officially celebrated by the A.P State Government. Chariot processions (Shobha Yatra) of Shri Rama, consort Sita, brother Lakshmana, and Hanuman are being conducted on this occasion.</div>
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The well known Uttaradhi Math and the Mantralaya Raghavender Swamy math organize Shri Rama Navami with the adoration of the Moola Rama icons. On this occasion, the temples and mutts arrange the reading of stories of Shri Rama (Shri Rama Charitha), singing of Shri Rama Bhajans or Rama Kirtanas, music concerts, religious discourses, and drama. Kosambari, a healthy, South Indian moong dal salad made with cucumber, coconut and moong dal, will be offered to one and all as Prasadam Free meals are offered to all in community halls. Some people used to offer clothes to the poor.</div>
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People from households wake up early and take a bath in the holy rivers and seashores. The houses will be cleaned and the courtyard used to be decorated with Rangoli Kolams and colorful festoons. Some of them used to remain fast until the day of Shri Rama Navami. Some others may proceed to pilgrimage (yatra) to holy shrines of Shri Rama.</div>
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The Indian Hindu diaspora living abroad organize Shri Rama Navami celebrations in their local temples and community halls. The kids and youth enjoy their time in witnessing live music consorts, discourses, Bharatanatyam, drama, etc, during this occasion.</div>
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On this auspicious day let us recite the Hanuman Stotra</div>
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यत्र यत्र रघुनाथकीर्तनं तत्र तत्र कृतमस्तकांजलिम्</div>
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वाष्पवारिपरिपूर्णालोचनं मारुतिं नमत राक्षसान्तकम् ॥</div>
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Yatra Yatra Raghunaatha-Kiirtanam Tatra Tatra Krta-Mastaka-Anjalim</div>
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Vaasspa-Vaari-Paripuurnnaa-Locanam Maarutim Namata Raakssasa-Antakam ||</div>
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Meaning:</div>
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1: Wherever the Glories of Raghunatha are Sung, there, with Hands held over His Bowed Head in Salutation, ...</div>
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2: and Eyes Filled with Tears, Maruti (Bhakta Hanuman) is Present; I Salute Maruti Who puts an End to the Rakshasas.</div>
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நன்மையும் செல்வமும் நாளும் நல்குமே</div>
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திண்மையும் பாவமும் சிதைந்து தேயுமே </div>
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சென்மமும் மரணமும் இன்றித் தீருமே</div>
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இம்மையே இராம என்று இரண்டு எழுத்தினால்</div>
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(கம்பராமாயணம். பாடல் 13. கம்பன்.)</div>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com2Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-67902095365235243262019-04-04T04:03:00.000-07:002019-04-04T04:03:22.931-07:00Mahabharata Tales for Kids 2: Kacha learned Sanjeevini Mantra from Sukracharya<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kacha, the son of Brahaspathi, the priest of the Devas also an ascetic joins as a disciple with Asura guru Sukracharya to learn the Sanjeevini Mantra. Devayani, the daughter of Sukracharya, falls in love with Kacha. The acceptance of Kacha as a disciple by the Asura guru ignited aversion among Asuras. They conceived.plot to kill Kachan. The poor Kachan was massacred twice. Upon the appeal of Devayani the disciple was brought alive by Sukracharya by chanting the divine Mantra. On the third occasion, Asuras worked out well. T his ascetic was not only butchered but also burnt into ashes. Sukracharya unknowingly consumed his alcoholic drink blended with ashes. How Kacha was brought alive? Whether Kacha learned the Mantra? What happened to Devayani - Kacha love story? Read this kids story to find the answer to the questions. Leave your comments.</div>
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In older times, Gods (Devas) and Demons (Asuras) wanted to rule three worlds (Netherworld (Pataal), Earth (Prithvi), and Heaven (Devalokam). For this very reason, there was heavy competition among these two. contending factions. Angiras or Brahaspati was the guiding spirit for Devas. Asuras also accepted Bhargav Sukracharya as their pathfinder. Sukracharya, the priest of the Asuras, was proficient in ‘Sanjeevani Mantra.’ With the chanting of this mantra, Sukracharya could bring back life into the Asuras who died in the war field and make them invigorating again. Several Asuras found dead in Deva-Asura wars. Sukracharya used to chant Sanjeevani Mantra to resurrect dead Asuras. The Sanjeevini Mantra was making Asuras tough and capable. They were not facing any casualties. </div>
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Brahaspati does not know Sanjeevani Mantra Therefore, Devas met heavy casualties and suffering from the debacle. Devas wanted to avert casualties. Brahaspati decided that somebody from Deva camp would have to go Asura guru to learn Sanjeevini Mantra. Kacha (later he became Kacha Maharishi) was the son of Brahaspati. Devas approached Kacha and represented their grievances. The mantra was not known to any Deva. Kacha felt the value of this Mantra. He wanted to learn the same from Sukracharya. He traveled to Vrishparva, where Shukracharya had his hermitage. He approached the Asura guru and conveyed his intention politely. Finally, the guru was pleased with the humility of Kacha and accepted him as his disciple.</div>
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The Asuras have learned the purposes on which Kacha came to Sukracharya's hermitage. The acceptance of Kacha as his disciple by the Asura guru ignited aversion among Asuras. Asuras also did not prefer Kacha learning Sanjeevini Mantra from the Lord of Asuras. .Devayani is the daughter of Sukracharya. She was very much in adoration with Kacha. But Kacha observed severe celibacy. He served his guru with devotion.</div>
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One day Kacha was gazing the cattle in the grazing field. Asuras came there and massacred Kacha into pieces. The flesh pieces were fed to the wolves. In the evening cattle alone returned home without Kacha. Devayani was worried about the absence of Kacha. She also briefed the same to her father. She pressed her father to save Kacha's life. Sukracharya visualized that Kacha was massacred by Asuras. He chanted the Sanjeevini Mantra and resurrected Kacha. </div>
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Asuras realized about Kacha's resurrection. They were expecting for another occasion. One day Kacha went to the garden to pluck flowers for Devayani. This time Kacha was butchered by them The body was minced into fine pieces and immersed in the ocean. Devayani was panic-stricken about Kacha's absence; She also pressed her father to do the necessitous. With the chanting of the Mantra, Sukracharya resurrected Kacha from the ocean.</div>
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Still, Asuras never leave off. In the third time, they made a conspiracy. They liquidated Kacha and burnt the body into ashes. They also blended the ashes into alcohol (divine liquor) and made Sukracharya drink. Asura guru also happily consumed this uncommon drink. Devayani also perturbed habitually. She also supplicated her father to resurrect Kacha.</div>
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Sukrachariar chanted the Mantra which would bring Kacha to life. Kacha appealed his guru that he remains inside the abdomen of Shukracharya and conveyed his difficulty in getting out from there. He also pleaded him salvage his life. The voice came from the guru’s abdomen. Guru was bewildered by hearing Kacha’s voice. He assumed the plot played by Asuras. He was guilty of being hoodwinked by Asuras. </div>
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If Kacha put into life, Sukracharya has to die. If Kacha left as it is, he remains dead. Devayani wanted both to remain alive. To realize this obligation Sukracharya first taught the secret of Sanjeevini Mantra to Kacha. Later he chanted the Mantra to resurrect Kacha. Kacha gets out alive after rupturing his guru’s abdomen. After coming alive, Kacha chanted Sanjeevini Mantra to resurrect his guru Sukracharya.</div>
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<a class="irc_mil i3597" data-noload="" data-ved="2ahUKEwi4jbbFk7bhAhWymOYKHSSAA_4QjRx6BAgBEAU" href="https://mahabharatham.arasan.info/search/label/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" jsaction="mousedown:irc.rl;focus:irc.rl" rel="noopener" style="background-color: #222222; border: 0px; color: #660099; cursor: pointer; font-family: arial, sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 0px; text-decoration: none;" tabindex="0" target="_blank"><img alt="kacha devayani க்கான பட முடிவு" class="irc_mi" data-iml="1554371089926" height="382" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikIXJxXStimQUs-8OKzqLDsp9-QVUFY8YV5_SwFE7jWzgTzCftxDtiBV3ISnGCcXsNGk34Dbgo1rjGV2bXIc60kpiBIPrh9BtjiRYv7GMpNryXcD8nO7UWOHFV-QQExnRGvcbQOSUObA/s1600/%25E0%25AE%25A4%25E0%25AF%2587%25E0%25AE%25B5%25E0%25AE%25AF%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%25A9%25E0%25AE%25BF+%25E0%25AE%259A%25E0%25AF%2581%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AF%258D%25E0%25AE%25B0%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%259A%25E0%25AF%258D%25E0%25AE%259A%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%25B0%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25AF%25E0%25AE%25BE%25E0%25AE%25B0%25E0%25AF%258D+%25E0%25AE%2595%25E0%25AE%259A%25E0%25AE%25A9%25E0%25AF%258D.jpg" style="background-color: white; background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgb(239, 239, 239) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 75%, rgb(239, 239, 239) 75%, rgb(239, 239, 239)), -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgb(239, 239, 239) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 75%, rgb(239, 239, 239) 75%, rgb(239, 239, 239)); background-position: 0px 0px, 10px 10px; background-size: 21px 21px; border: 0px; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.65098) 0px 5px 35px; margin-top: 0px;" width="486" /></a></div>
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Devayani wanted to espouse Kacha. She craved him to renounce his celibacy and accept for their wedlock. </div>
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Guru preached Mantra to Kacha, therefore, he becomes his father. Kacha came out alive from his womb. Hence he becomes his mother. In short, guru also becomes his father as well as his mother. Devayani becomes his sister. In view of this, he said to Devayani, I cannot marry you as you are my sister.</div>
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Devyani was agonized and outraged at Kacha's defiance. Therefore she cursed him saying that all the learning that he had acquired from his guru would be of no use to him. Since Kacha inadvertently hurt Devayani, he accepted her curses painfully. However, he said that he would teach Devas what he has learned. What I have learned from my guru would be beneficial for Devas. They would use it for the benefit of others. He also said that Devayani never considers that an ascetic like him was bound by certain regulations. She even went to the extent of cursing him. Consequently, Kacha also cursed her He said that no Brahmin would marry her. Only a Warrior (Chatriya) would marry her </div>
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He submitted his prayers to his guru. Guru accepted his views and allowed him to leave for heaven (his place). </div>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com32tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-7442410595984748322019-03-31T01:06:00.000-07:002019-03-31T01:06:18.851-07:00Mahabharata Tales for Kids 1: Mahabharata was scribed by Ganesha as recited by Veda Vyasa<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Mahabharata, the great epic story, was contemplated by the sage Veda Vyasa. These epic poems were scribed by Lord Ganesha as recited by Veda Vyasa. This puranic tale was retold to king Janamejayan, one of the descendants of Kuru dynasty. King Janamejaya disseminated this story to the mass. It reached well to the common people. I have made an attempt to narrate Ganesha – Vyasa episode for kids to understand. If you like this kindly leave your comments. Criticisms will also improve my writing.</div>
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Ganesha is the popular Hindu god. You will find his idols everywhere in India. Look at his idol. Have you noted that Ganesha has an elephant head and the human body? His belly looks like a pot. His elephant head shows long trunk and the single tusk at his right side. Elephants normally will get two tusks. Have you ever wondered why Ganesha appear with only one tusk? There is a story to explain this.</div>
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The story is related to Mahabharata and to the sage Veda Vyasa. Vyasa contemplated the Mahabharata story and wanted to narrate. The sage already compiled eighteen Hindu Puranas. By the power of his penance, Vyasa analyzed all Vedas and compiled and organized into four parts. So the sage was given the title as Veda Vyasa.</div>
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Sage Parasara was Vyasa’s father. He only composed the famous Vishnu Purana, the first Purana of the Hindu pantheon. Satyavati was Vyasa’s mother. Matsyagandha (Fisher Woman with fishy smell) was her alternate name. Child Vyasa was born in the middle of an island of river Yamuna. The child had a dark complexion. Therefore he was named as Krishna Dwaipayana. Some believe Vyasa had some godly features of Vishnu.</div>
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Brahma himself tutored him at his young age. At an older age, Vyasa meditated the story of Mahabharata. He wanted to write the story in poems (Slokas) for people to read. So he performed penance to Brahma. Brahma appeared before Vyasa. Vyasa prayed Brahma. He also requested his blessings and help to write Mahabharata. Brahma advised him to approach Ganesha for such help. Ganesha is noted for his intelligence. So with Ganesha’s blessings and support Mahabharata story can be composed easily.</div>
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On hearing, Vyasa also performed penance to Ganesha. Ganesha was pleased by his devotion. He appeared before Vyasa and inquired about his solemn request. Vyasa appealed for Ganesha’s blessings and his help in writing Mahabharata. At once Ganesha has agreed to write Vyasa’s rendition. Both seated before each other.</div>
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Vyasa politely said, “Oh Lord Ganesha, my salutation. I have meditated and contemplated the Mahabharata story. I will narrate now. Please write!”</div>
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“I will write the story of Mahabharata in poems (slokas). But I have one condition. My stylus should not stop even for a minute,” Ganesha instantly answered.</div>
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Vyasa said, “Oh Lord you may continue to write Mahabharata until you understand the meaning of the story as narrated through poems (slokas).”</div>
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Ganesha readily agreed. Vyasa recited and Ganesha proceeded to write at a fast speed. Suddenly the stylus of Ganesha was broken. Ganesha never stopped for want of stylus. So he broke his left tusk and continued to write. Thus the Mahabharata story was completed. After this Ganesha was left with only one tusk. It is his right tusk. So people started calling Ganesha as “Ekadanta” (Meaning: single tusked god).</div>
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Well! Do you know what happened to the story of Mahabharata after this? This story was orally retold by Vyasa to his son Suka Brahma Rishi.</div>
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Suka Brahma Rishi, in turn, retold this story to Gandharvas and Rakshasas..</div>
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Narada retold this Devas…</div>
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Vaishampayana, the disciple of Vyasa, retold this to King Janamejaya, the Pandava heir who ruled from Hastinapura. Do you know who is this King Janamejayan? Janamejayan was the son of King Parikshit and grandson of King Abhimanyu as well as the great-grandson of Arjuna. Janamejayan was instrumental in spreading the story to the public. It was from this point, the story being retold by men and women to their near and dear.</div>
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Now I am retelling this story to the beloved kids.</div>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com6Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-4525845297271187032017-10-17T04:17:00.001-07:002017-10-17T04:17:39.720-07:00அகரம் அகரம் https://agharam.wordpress.com/iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-35883108334515292762017-07-23T01:07:00.001-07:002017-08-20T23:28:25.120-07:00Salt and Salt Merchants in Sangam Literature<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Marakkanam_Salt_Pans.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="531" data-original-width="800" height="265" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Marakkanam_Salt_Pans.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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Tamil cuisine recognizes six tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent and astringent and Salty is one among the six tastes. It brings the best out of food . As the most essential ingredient, it can transform the character in our dish. In Tamil tradition salt is being represented as food and considered as icon for sensitiveness, loyalty and gratitude. In Persian / Urdu, the word 'halal' means righteous i.e., characterized by accepted standards of morality or justice; 'haram' means just the opposite, 'something that is morally reprehensible.' 'Namak-halal' means loyalist and 'Namak-haram' means disloyalty by virtue of subversive behavior. In Madras Regimental Center (MRC) (An Indian Army Regiment) the recruits (a.k.a “Thambis”), during their attestation parade, used to take the oath of enlistment or salt-oath after eating a pinch of salt and by placing their hands on copies of the Bible, Koran, and the Bhagawad Gita wrapped in Tricolor. This tradition is being observed since from the inception of MRC.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Madras Regimental Center Willington Passing out Parade Cadets one Salt Oath</td></tr>
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Nothing is more essential to making food taste good than salt. Proper salting results in being able to taste the ingredients better, not the salt (<span style="text-align: left;">சில்பத உணவு. Food added with salt. Perumpanatruppadai 64)</span>. Without salt the food will taste flat and excess salt the food tastes salty. By drawing moisture salt, a chemical agent, destroys bacteria and preserves food. Therefore it is known as a "primordial condiment," Tiruvalluvar has employed this example with the feigned dislike of a wife to her husband; sometimes of a husband to his wife:</div>
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உப்பமைந் தற்றால் புலவி அதுசிறிது </div>
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மிக்கற்றால் நீள விடல்.</div>
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Tiruvalluvar (திருக்குறள்) 1302:.</div>
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A little dislike is like salt in proportion; to prolong it a little is like salt a little too much. </div>
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Salt or common salt is "a white crystalline substance which gives seawater its characteristic taste." <span style="text-align: left;">In the form of edible (table) salt it is popularly used as a condiment and food preservative.</span> <span style="text-align: left;">Salt is identified as an icon for friendship, hospitality, chastity, alliance, table fellowship, fidelity, fertility, blessing, curse and endurance, etc.</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">"Salt has influenced human nutrition, health, politics, taxation, economy, freight, transport, and commerce throughout the ages. All human activities have been influenced by salt including economy, religious beliefs and practices, art, literature, psychoanalysis, superstitions, and exorcism."</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Baskets_of_dried_fish.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="533" data-original-width="800" height="266" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Baskets_of_dried_fish.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fish preserved using salt. PC: Wikimedia</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pickles and Condiments Variety</td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><b>Etymology</b></span></div>
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The word 'salt' originated from Proto-Germanic word "<i><u>salto</u></i>." and from Old English word "<i><u>sealtan</u></i>." Since salt was once rare and important resource, few metaphoric uses such as <i><u>worth one's salt</u></i> (1830), <i><u>salt of the earth</u></i> (Old English, after Matthew v.13) reflect its value. <span style="text-align: left;">The Bible contains no fewer than 24 references to this substance. In olden days, the Roman </span><span style="text-align: left;">warriors serving the empire were paid with a handful of salt each day as salary. Hence it was known as </span><span style="text-align: left;">'<u><i>salarium</i></u>' (Latin) or <i><u>salt-money</u></i>. </span><span style="text-align: left;">Over a period time the officers in charge found it difficult to preserve the huge bulk of salt from rain and the transport of the same was difficult. Therefore salt was replaced with money. </span><span style="text-align: left;">Old Latin word '<i><u>Solidus</u></i>'-- a Roman Gold coin and </span><span style="text-align: left;">Medivial Latin '<i><u>soldarius</u></i>'-- one working for pay.</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">France also followed the concept of salt-money and paid the </span><span style="text-align: left;">warriors with a special coin called '<i><u>sol</u></i>', and the payment was known as '<i><u>solde</u></i>' (also the payment of a sailor). Hence </span><span style="text-align: left;">the French call their soldiers, '<u><i>soldat</i></u>'. </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">Old French '<i><u>Soudier.</u></i>' </span>Sambalam (சம்பளம்) is the Tamil word. Samba (சமபா) means paddy (நெல்) + Alam (அளம்) means salt pan and Sambalam (சம்பளம்) means paddy and salt paid as wage. The practice was followed when barter system was in vogue.<br />
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<b>Sodium Chloride</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chemical bonding of the Na+ ion and the Cl- ion</td></tr>
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From 1790 salt, also known as 'sodium chloride,' in modern chemistry sense. It is an inorganic chemical compound formed from the ionic bonding of an acid with a base. This ionic crystalline chemical compound represents 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions (atoms) and is represented with the chemical formula NaCl which means that for every sodium atom present, there is exactly one chloride atom. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: Socratic</td></tr>
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Sodium chloride do not contain carbon and hydrogen together in one molecule and it has a molar mass of 58.44 grams per mole. The white colored chemical substance appears as a solid, clear crystal with little or no odor. It is hygroscopic and also dissolves well in water and the ions in the crystals will separate when in solution. It has the density of 2.165 g/cm³ and 800.8 °C as melting point and 1465 °C as boiling point. Its vapour pressure at 865 °C = 1 mm Hg and solubility is at 25 °C = 35.9 g/100 g water. <span style="text-align: left;">The ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of solids per liter i.e., the salinity of 3.5%. The solid do not conduct electricity and the </span><span style="text-align: left;">aqueous </span><span style="text-align: left;">liquid solution conducts electricity. It do not have combustion properties. </span>Sodium chloride molecules can also stack on top of each other in a structure known as a lattice and the solid crystals of sodium chloride will contain this lattice-type arrangement.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="nacl.png (278×286)" src="http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/nacl.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lattice Type Arrangement of Sodium Crystals</td></tr>
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Common salt is basically an electrolyte. Electrolytes are minerals that conduct electricity in our fluids and tissues. So basically our body really needs electrolytes, the main ones are sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium and calcium. Sodium is a vital nutrient. It’s a major component of extracellular fluid, and is essential for maintaining the volume of the plasma to allow adequate tissue perfusion and normal cellular metabolism. It keeps human body electrically conductive to maintain cell voltage for receiving or passing along information. Electrolyte prevents our cells from bursting too much water or from shrinking due to shortage of water. Common salt works fine as long as it contains sodium chloride, Human body lose salt by sweating and urinating and the salt intake (in our food) replaces the loss.<br />
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The daily human intake of salt is minimum. The minimum physiological requirement of sodium simply to sustain life has been estimated by World Health Organization to be 5000 mg (5 gm) of sodium per day (5 gm per day). American Heart Association (AHA) has an even more strict guideline of consuming less than 1,500 mg of sodium (3.8 gm of salt) a day for general health and disease prevention. "The average daily salt intake was 10.98 grams per day for Indians aged above 19 against the WHO recommendation of 5 gm,",Excess salt and sodium intake has been blamed for a variety of serious health conditions such as heart disease, hypertension, and stroke.<br />
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<b>World History of Salt</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">PC: Bulgarian National Institute of Archaeology</td></tr>
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<i>“Salt is so common, so easy to obtain, and so inexpensive that we have forgotten that from the beginning of civilization until about 100 years ago, salt was one of the most sought-after commodities in human history.”</i><br />
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Salt <span style="text-align: left;">was in use long before recorded history and </span><span style="text-align: left;">it </span>has shaped civilization since Neolithic caveman. <span style="text-align: left;">Since the dawn of time, </span><span style="text-align: left;">early human hunter gatherers and hunters </span><span style="text-align: left;">obtained their salt from eating animal meat and plant diet.</span><br />
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Salt was harvested thousands of years ago. Archaeologists in Bulgaria discovered the walled fortified settlement near the modern town of Provadia in north-east Bulgaria dating back to around 6050 B.C. That was well before the commencement of ancient Greek civilization. The excavation at this site commenced in 2005. The ancestors of this site boiled water fetched from a local spring and used it to produce salt bricks to preserve meat and they even traded salt, Almost all major ancient civilizations viewed salt as a precious commodity. In Tuzla, an ancient town inhabited continuously for more than 6,000 years, in Bonsia extensive salt deposits were found underneath the city. The name "<u><i>Tuzla</i></u>" is the Ottoman Turkish word for salt mine, Salt was first extracted in a salt mine <i>Salina Turda</i> located in the Durgau-Valea Sarata area of Turda, in Cluj County, Romania. The mine first mentioned in 1075, continuously produced table salt from the Middle Ages.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tuzla mine Tuzlaite, NaCaB5O8(OH)2·3H2O</td></tr>
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Chinese Yellow Emperor Huangdi (a.k.a Yellow Thearch), third of ancient China's mythological emperors, may be credited with for presiding over the first war ever fought over salt.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Yellow_Emperor.jpg/220px-Yellow_Emperor.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="221" data-original-width="220" height="400" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Yellow_Emperor.jpg/220px-Yellow_Emperor.jpg" width="398" /></a></td></tr>
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Yuncheng Salt Lake, located in the southwest of Yuncheng city and the largest lake in Shanxi Province, has 4000 years salt production history. Chinese slaves and even the entire villagers harvested salt crystals from the surface of the lake. Assyrians commenced the "tactics of salting the earth" as a military tactic to destroy enemy farmlands.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wrapped_natron_salt_offering_REM.JPG/1280px-Wrapped_natron_salt_offering_REM.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="546" data-original-width="800" height="272" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Wrapped_natron_salt_offering_REM.JPG/1280px-Wrapped_natron_salt_offering_REM.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wrapped Natron Salt Offering (Wikimedia)</td></tr>
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The civilization of Ancient Egypt, usually held to have begun around 3000 B.C when the lower Nile Valley became unified under a single ruler, was one of the earliest in world history. Egyptians may have been the first civilization to preserve fish and meat with salt. Egyptians also commenced exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in exchange for expensive luxuries. They have found a kind of salt in an area called 'Natrun,' which <span style="text-align: left;">referred to it as "the divine salt" or "Natron." It was not entirely composed of sodium chloride. Natron, </span>harvested directly as a salt mixture from dry lake beds in ancient Egypt,<span style="text-align: left;"> was used for mummification processes. The salt </span>absorbs water and behaves as a drying agent. Egyptians also used pure salt (sodium chloride) to preserve birds and fish and made them as funereal offerings in ancient Egyptian tombs.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Trans-Saharan Salt Route</td></tr>
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The nomadic traders used camels as the key means of trade-transport between the Mediterranean and West Africa and to cross the Sahara desert. They evaporated seawater from the Mediterranean Sea, Salt came from Libya, Tunisia, and Nubia. Trans-Saharan salt routes are heavily protected to keep the trade flourishing. "The amersal, or earth salt, is formed when the blazing sun heats a dry lake bed after July's sudden rains, drawing liquid to the surface where it is baked into a thick layer of salt mixed with sand. This can be refined for human consumption or is more commonly fed to livestock for its rich mineral content."<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Hallstatt_Salt_mine_slide_2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="533" data-original-width="800" height="266" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Hallstatt_Salt_mine_slide_2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hallstatt Salt Mine, Austria PC: Wikipedia</td></tr>
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Hallstatt (meaning "salt town"), a village in the Salzkammergut, on the western shore of the Hallstätter, a region in Austria, is known for its production of salt, dating back to 800–450 B.C. Hallstatt culture is usually linked to Celtic culture and the early European Celts of Hallstatt begin mining salt. In German "salz" means "salt" and the country's towns like Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein located on the banks of Salzach river derived their names with salt.</div>
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From Chinese written records dating back to 800 B.C. we learn about salt extraction by the people of China using clay jars. They filled the jars with ocean water and boiled away to evaporate the water and collected the salt crystals left with in the jars. Later during 700 - 600 B.C. (the Eastern Chou dynasty) they used iron pans instead of clay jars to boil water for salt and they saved the fuel usage considerably.</div>
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During 500 B.C. Hallstatt Celts adopted to open salt pans on the sea-shore to produce salt. The method of evaporation to produce salt was followed during 500 B.C. by Etruscans in Italy, and the early Romans, and the Carthaginians in North Africa. .<br />
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The Roman Empire is considered as one of the greatest civilizations in history. It was founded in Rome in 753 B.C. The Roman Empire included most of what would now be considered as Western Europe, stretching from the Rhine River to Egypt and from Britain to Asia Minor. This timeline highlights the major events in the history of Ancient Rome. The history of Roman civilization goes from 753 BC to 27 BC and then from 64 AD to 1453 AD. The salt was mined by Romans from deposits in the ground. The mined salt was dissolved in water to get brine solution. They used uncovered salt pans (Roman name 'Salina') to boil the brine water to obtain salt. To form salt crystal, they used blood as coagulating (binding) agent. Roman salt pans were discovered in Algarve, Portugal.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="saltblocks.jpg (529×352)" height="266" src="https://doubtfulsea.files.wordpress.com/2016/07/saltblocks.jpg?w=529" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pieces of Salt</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Map_of_Roman_roads_in_Italy.png/350px-Map_of_Roman_roads_in_Italy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="309" data-original-width="350" height="352" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Map_of_Roman_roads_in_Italy.png/350px-Map_of_Roman_roads_in_Italy.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Via Salaria Wikipedia</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="buildingromanroad.jpg (529×377)" height="285" src="https://doubtfulsea.files.wordpress.com/2016/07/buildingromanroad.jpg?w=529" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Roman Bridges</td></tr>
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The Roman Republic and Empire cautiously exercised control over the price of salt and they intentionally escalated salt price to raise money for wars. The <i>Via Salaria</i> was an ancient Roman road in Italy leading from Rome to the Adriatic Sea. The Latin word Via Salaria means salt. It was one of many ancient salt roads in Europe. In this route <i>Sabines</i> came to fetch salt from the marshes at the mouth of the river Tiber. So it was known as "<i>Sabine Trail</i>." The word "Salary" originated from the Latin word "<i>Salarium</i>," and it has the root <i>sal</i>, or "<i>salt</i>." In ancient Roman empire, it is specifically meant as the amount of money allotted to a Roman soldier to buy salt. Salt was an expensive, yet essential, commodity. The word "<i>salad</i>" comes from the French <i>salade</i> of the same meaning, from the Latin <i>salata (salty)</i>, from <i>sal (salt)</i>. Romans boiled vegetables with water, drained, blanched, and seasoned with pepper, salt, olive oil and lemon juice. Collumella, a Roman writer wrote about ancient Roman salad, which also reflect the richness of the land. These salads were known for their abundant varieties.<br />
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<b>Indian Salt History</b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="himalayan-rocks1.jpg (500×332)" src="http://www.saltnews.com/blog/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/himalayan-rocks1.jpg" height="265" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rocks of Saindhava Lavana (aka Himalayan Pink Salt). PC: Salt News</td></tr>
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Salt is known since pre-Vedic times and is certainly as ancient as human civilization. Sushruta , an ancient Indian physician known for his Sanskrit treatise the Compendium of Sushruta (<i>Sushruta-saṃhita</i>) (600 B.C.), mentions four kinds of salt: rock salt, sea salt, lake salt and earth salt. <i>Saindhava lavana</i> (aka <i>Sendha Namak</i> in Ayurveda) is naturally occurring mineral form and isometric crystals of Sodium Chloride. It is best known today as the "<i>Himalayan Pink rock salt</i>." The word “<i>Saindhava</i>” means the ancient <i>Sindhu Kingdom</i> cited in the Indian epic "The Mahabharata." “<i>Lavana</i>” means “salt”. So Saindhava Lavana means salt that comes from the region of the Indus river valley. The Sindhu kingdom was located in the Indus river valley in modern day Pakistan.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Khewra_Salt_Mine_-_Crystal_Deposits_on_the_mine_walls.jpg/1200px-Khewra_Salt_Mine_-_Crystal_Deposits_on_the_mine_walls.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="533" data-original-width="800" height="266" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Khewra_Salt_Mine_-_Crystal_Deposits_on_the_mine_walls.jpg/1200px-Khewra_Salt_Mine_-_Crystal_Deposits_on_the_mine_walls.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Khewara Salt Mine (Wikimedia)</td></tr>
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The famous <i>Khewra Salt Mine</i>, one of the primary sources of Saindhava Lavana, is located in the foothills at the head of the valley beside one of the tributaries of the Indus. Black salt or <i>Kala Namak</i> is also a type of rock salt, which it contains <i>sulfur</i> content in addition to sodium chloride.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Salt_Range.jpg/250px-Salt_Range.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="188" data-original-width="250" height="300" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Salt_Range.jpg/250px-Salt_Range.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Salt Range in Mianwali district, Punjab, Pakistan (Wikimedia)</td></tr>
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<i>Salt Range</i>, the series of hills and low mountains between the valleys of the Indus and Jhelum rivers, lies between the Indus River and the Himalayan Range in the north of what is Pakistan today. Salt range extends approximately 186 miles (300 km) long from east to west, and from 5 to 19 miles in width, in the central and eastern parts and its average height is 2,200 feet. In addition to the common salt, the Salt Range also contains coal, gypsum, and other minerals. Thousands of years ago Indians mined salt in Salt Range. <br />
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The Indian Salt Industry was an ancient industry. The tax was levied on salt in India since the earliest times and has always been a subject of criticism. Kautilya's <i>Arthashastra</i>, ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy, provides a short account on salt manufacturing process. The salt extraction activity was supervised by "<i>Lavanadhyakasa</i>," an official representing the state during Mauryan empire. Solar evaporation of sea water was carried out in salt pans in coastal regions. The state maintained a system license for manufacturing salt for the fixed fee or tax during this period. During Pallava reign in South India salt industry was monopolized by the state. The Chola emperors in Tamil Nadu showed keen interest in the development of salt industry and encouraged taxation for salt. Hence number of salt pans situated along the eastern coast are referred to in Chola and later Pandya inscriptions. Large quantities of salts were transported through ancient highways.<br />
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Salt was produced in the coastal regions of Bengal, Bombay, Rann of Kutch and in inland regions of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Central India. The British East India Company greatly showed interest in escalating salt tax. In 1835, East India Company imposed special taxes on Indian salt to facilitate its import. Special Taxation paid huge dividends for the traders of the British East India Company. Heavy taxation on salt continued even after the Crown took over the administration of India from the Company in 1858. The Indian public vehemently condemned the stringent salt taxes imposed by the British. The first session of the Indian National Congress held in Bombay in 1885 raised the issue of the salt tax. Number of protests were observed in several parts of the country during 19th and early 20th centuries and this resulted in Mahatma Gandhi's Salt Satyagraha in 1930. Similar Satyagrahas were held in other parts of the country.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="saltmarch02.jpg (636×397)" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxUT3udKNgXbMC0QKKcgtVx3Wz5vS420S4iBpmjbIQ5hBC4eSBDItvtF3q8ht8PB_Wgz6cDKDy9_3Z4xbuBNir4zInXCn5tBqCltfKM4NfMbwBjnpTJ9_a7O5A4ittzXtJ5OkCodwDfTs/s400/saltmarch02.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mahatma Gandhiji's Dandi March Salt Satyagraha</td></tr>
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India ranks third among the Salt producing countries in the world after China and USA. The salt industry in India has shown remarkable growth and achievement during the last 60 years. At the time of our independence in 1947 we imported salt from the United Kingdom and Adens and now the country has not only achieved self-sufficiency in production of salt to meet its domestic requirement but also in a position of exporting surplus salt to foreign countries. There are about 11799 salt manufacturers engaged in production of Common salt in an extent of about 6.09 lakh acres in the Country. Gujarat contributes 76.7 per cent to the total production, followed by Tamil Nadu (11.16 %) and Rajasthan (9.86%). In Tamil Nadu, salt is produced primarily in the three districts of Nagapattinam, Tuticorin and Marakkanam in Villupuram.<br />
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<b>Salt (உப்பு) in Sangam Literature</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sangam Landscape in Ancient Tamilakam</td></tr>
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It is well known that the Sangam landscape was divided into five tinais (திணை) or five geographical landscapes. The physiographical lay-out of Tamilakam, its flora and fauna, its hills and valleys, rivers and lakes, its deserts and sandy beaches, formed the basis for the habitation of five different group of people. Kurunji (குறிஞ்சி) was the home of Verpan and Kodichi as well as Kuravan and Kurathi; Palai (பாலை) was the home of Vitalai, Kalai, Meeli, Eyinar, Eyirriyar, Maravar and Marathiyar; Mullai (முல்லை) was the home of <span style="text-align: left;">Kurumporai, Kizhathi, Thondral Manaivi, Idaiyar, Idaichiyar, Ayar, Aychiyar, Kovalar and Pothuvar; Marutham (மருதம்) was the home of </span><span style="text-align: left;">Ooran, Makizhnan, Kizhathi, Manaivi, Ulavar, Ulathiyar, Kataiyar, Kataisiyar and Kalamar and Neithal (நெய்தல்) was the home of </span><span style="text-align: justify;">Serppan, Pulamban, Parathi, Nuzhaichi, Nulaiyar, Nulaichiyar, Parathar, Parathiyar, Alavar and Alathiyar.</span></div>
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<b>Neithal Terrain</b><br />
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Neithal Tinai corresponds to seashore and adjoining terrains. Blue Water Lily Blue Nelumbo or Kuvalai (குவளை) or Kazhuneer (கழுநீர்) or Neithal (நெய்தல்) flower (Nymphae odorata) is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Neithal Tinai. Lord Kadalon (a.k.a Varunan) was worshiped by the native people. The Neithal terrain is known for seashore and adjoining coastal land dotted with sand well Crocodile (முதலை), shark (சுறா) and Kara fish (காரா மீன்) were native animal and fish. Sea-crow (நீர்க்காகம்), swan (அன்னம்) and Andril (அன்றில்) were the birds. Kandal (கண்டல்), Punnai (புன்னை), Gnazhal (ஞாழல்) trees occupied their terrain. The native music note of the land was Sevvazhi Note (செவ்வாழி பண்) and the drum used was Navay drum (நாவாய்ப்பறை) and the stringed musical instrument was Vilari Lute (விளரி யாழ்).</div>
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The vast, unbroken coastline of Tamilagam was located in Neithal region. The fishermen engaged in fishing from ocean using fishing net. Salt was highly valued and considered as a precious commodity during Sangam period. Womenfolk barter fish and salt and get paddy, meat and wine. Salting and drying the fish took place to preserve seafood. They constructed fishing boats and skilled in surfing the waves. They lived in coastal villages i.e., Pakkam (பாக்கம்) and pattinam (பட்டிணம்).<br />
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Ammoovanar (அம்மூவனார்) was a great Tamil poet during Sangam period. He composed 127 poems. Akananuru (அகநானூறு) 6 poems; Ainkurunuru (ஐங்குறு நூறு) 100 poems ie., second hundred on Neithal landscape (நெய்தல் திணை); Kuruntokai (குறுந்தொகை) 11 poems; and Natrinai (நற்றிணை) 10 poets. Of the 127 poems 125 poems composed on neithal tinai (landscape of the sandy coastal terrain) and the other two poem 127 from Kuruntokai (Kurinji tinai) and poem 397 from Natrinai (Palai tinai).<br />
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பெருங்கடல் வேட்டத்துச் சிறுகுடிப் பரதவர்</div>
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இருங்கழி செறுவின் உழாஅது செய்த</div>
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வெண் கல் உப்பின் கொள்ளை சாற்றி</div>
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என்றூழ் விடர குன்றம் போகும்</div>
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(Akananuru 140, Poet Ammoovanar,) </div>
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What the hero said to his friend: She is the loving, innocent daughter of a salt merchant who goes through mountains cracked by the sun’s heat in his fast bullock cart, goading his oxen with a stick, to sell father's white grainy salt, made in the salt pans without plowing, near the seashore in a small settlement of fishermen</div>
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உவர் விளை உப்பின் கொள்ளை சாற்றி</div>
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அதர் படு பூழிய சேண் புலம் படரும்</div>
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ததர் கோல் உமணர் பதி போகு நெடு நெறிக்</div>
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கண நிரை வாழ்க்கை தான் நன்று கொல்லோ</div>
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(Akananuru 390, Poet Ammoovanar,) </div>
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What the hero said to his heart, or What the hero said to his friend: Stating the price of salt grown in saline land, going to far away places with dusty paths, the lives of salt merchants with thick goads must be good when they go on the long paths in groups.</div>
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<b>Salt Extraction and Salt Pans during Sangam Period</b></div>
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The salt pan industry was an ancient industry in Sangam period. Neithal people who lived near the sea ventured upon salt production and sale. Salt producers were known as 'Alavars' (அலவர்) and their women as 'Alathiyar.' (அலத்தியர்). They are h<span style="text-align: center;">arvesting </span><span style="text-align: center;">salt without plowing</span><span style="text-align: left;">. </span>(<span style="text-align: left;">உவர் விளைவு உப்பின் உழா உழவர். </span><span style="text-align: center;">Natrinai 331: 2.) </span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span>The dark brackish waters produce white salt (இருங்கழிச் செறுவின் வெள் உப்பு விளையும் Natrinai 311:4). The place of salt extraction was known as 'Alams' (அளம்) or Uppalams (உப்பளம்) i.e. uppu (உப்பு) + alam (அளம்). Villages like Kovalam (கோவளம்), Peralam (பேரளம்) etc., got their names due to the presence of salt pans.<br />
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Poet Ulochanar (உலோச்சனார்) was a great Tamil poet during Sangam period. He composed 35 poems (Puram 3 and Akam 32). His 31 Akam poems describes about the neithal landscape of the sandy coastal terrain. He has also described about fishermen and fisher-women as well as salt merchants and bartering of salt and fish. In Natrinai poem 354 he describes the process of salt extraction in salt pans and about <span style="text-align: center;">long rows of wagons that carry salt crystals.</span><br />
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கடு வெயில் கொதித்த கல் விளை உப்பு</div>
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நெடு நெறி ஒழுகை நிரை செலப் பார்ப்போர்</div>
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அளம் போகு ஆகுலம் கடுப்ப</div>
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Natrinai 354, Ulochanar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the hero. The uproars of the long rows of wagons that carry salt crystals made by the hot boiling sun in salt pans, near the misty seashore with long sandy stretches of groves.</div>
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Ulaochanar's Akananuru poem 20 speaks about the drying of salted fish by fisher-women:</div>
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பெரு நீர் அழுவத்து எந்தை தந்த</div>
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கொழு மீன் உணங்கல் படு புள் ஓப்பி</div>
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எக்கர்ப் புன்னை இன் நிழல் அசைஇ</div>
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Akananuru 20: 1-3, Ulochanar, What the heroine’s friend said to her, as the hero listened nearby.Our father gave us fatty fish, that he had caught in the huge ocean, to dry. We rested in the sweet shade of a punnai tree growing in the sand, and chased away the marauding birds.</div>
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<b>Umanars (உமணர்கள்)</b></div>
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The salt merchants were known as 'Umanars' (உமணர்) and their women as 'Umattiyars' (உமத்தியர்). They traveled with their families with train of bullock carts (<span style="text-align: left;">நோன்புகட்டுமணர் ஒழிகை Sirupanatruppadai)</span>. Their vast caravans were loaded with salt and hawked door to door and village to village. Salt merchants traveled in groups and reached villages to sell their salt.<br />
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ஈங்குப் பிரிந்து உறைதல் இனிதன்று ஆகலின்</div>
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அவணதாகப் பொருள் என்று உமணர்</div>
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கண நிரை அன்ன பல் கால் குறும்பொறைத்</div>
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Akananuru 337, Cheraman Palai Padiya Perunkadunko, </div>
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What the hero said to his heart: You brought me alone to the harsh path, where small boulders are like rows of salt merchants’ donkeys that carry load,</div>
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Salt merchants traveled with their families in trains of carts.</div>
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கொழுஞ்சூட்டு அருந்திய திருந்து நிலை ஆரத்து</div>
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முழவின் அன்ன முழுமர உருளி</div>
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எழூஉப் புணர்ந்தன்ன பரூஉக்கை நோன் பார்</div>
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மாரிக் குன்றம் மழை சுமந்தன்ன</div>
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ஆரை வேய்ந்த அறைவாய்ச் சகடம்</div>
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வேழம் காவலர் குரம்பை ஏய்ப்பக்</div>
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கோழி சேக்கும் கூடுடைப் புதவின்</div>
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முளை எயிற்று இரும்பிடி முழந்தாள் ஏய்க்கும்</div>
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துளை அரைச் சீறுரல் தூங்கத் தூக்கி</div>
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நாடக மகளிர் ஆடுகளத்து எடுத்த</div>
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விசி வீங்கு இன் இயம் கடுப்பக் கயிறு பிணித்து</div>
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காடி வைத்த கலனுடை மூக்கின்</div>
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மகவுடை மகடூஉப் பகடு புறம் துரப்ப</div>
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கோட்டு இணர் வேம்பின் ஏட்டு இலை மிடைந்த</div>
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படலைக் கண்ணிப் பருஏர் எறுழ்த் திணிதோள்</div>
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முடலை யாக்கை முழு வலி மாக்கள்</div>
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சிறு துளைக் கொடுநுகம் நெறிபட நிரைத்த</div>
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பெருங் கயிற்று ஒழுகை மருங்கில் காப்ப</div>
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சில்பத உணவின் கொள்ளை சாற்றி</div>
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பல் எருத்து உமணர் பதி போகு நெடு நெறி </div>
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(Perumpanatruppadai line 46-65, Poet Nallur Nathathanar. The King Oyman Nalliyakodan) </div>
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The Long Path that Salt Merchants take: The wagons of salt merchants have wheel rims which surround perfectly placed spokes, massive wheel hubs made from huge trees, thick, strong wooden axle bars appearing like two fortress gate cross bars united, roofs woven with grass looking like rain clouds carried by the mountains during monsoons, and cages for domestic fowl resembling the huts of guards who protect fields against elephants.</div>
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In a wagon, there is a small mortar with holes in the shape of the knees of a cow elephant with tusks like the sprouts of bamboo, that dangles from the cart near the cage.</div>
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The salt merchant’s wife, holding her child, is seated on a pickle pot circled with ropes, that resembles the legs of female elephants whose tusks appear like bamboo sprouts, and also resembles the sweet, small drums with holes that are tied with ropes and played when drama actresses dance in dancing arenas.</div>
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She hits the oxen on their back and drives the cart, and strong men with thick shoulders and firm bodies wearing garlands made with fine leaves of neem trees with clusters of flowers on branches, walk near the cart with curved yoke with small holes tied properly with large ropes, calling out the price of salt, in the long path that takes the salt merchants owning many bulls, to many towns.</div>
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நறவுவாய் உறைக்கும் நாகு முதிர் நுணவத்து</div>
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அறைவாய்க் குறுந்துணி அயில் உளி பொருத</div>
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கை புனை செப்பம் கடைந்த மார்பின்</div>
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செய்பூங் கண்ணி செவி முதல் திருத்தி</div>
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நோன் பகட்டு உமணர் ஒழுகையொடு வந்த</div>
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மகாஅர் அன்ன மந்தி மடவோர்</div>
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நகாஅர் அன்ன நளி நீர் முத்தம்</div>
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வாள் வாய் எருந்தின் வயிற்றகத்து அடக்கி</div>
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தோள் புற மறைக்கும் நல்கூர் நுசுப்பின்</div>
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உளர் இயல் ஐம்பால் உமட்டியர் ஈன்ற</div>
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கிளர் பூண் புதல்வரொடு கிலுகிலி ஆடும் </div>
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Sirupanatruppadai line 55 - 61, Poet Nallur Nathathanar. The King is Oyman Nalliyakodan </div>
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On a wagon pulled by strong oxen, owned by a salt merchant, wearing on his chest a fine garland, carved with an iron chisel from wood pieces from a delicate nunavan tree. A female monkey that is like his daughter plays with a shell rattle stuffed with lovely pearls resembling the teeth of tender women. Its opening a thin slit as narrow as a sword’s sharp edge. His sons wear bright jewels, and their mother, the wife of the salt merchant, is pretty with a delicate waist and swaying five-part braid that hides her back.</div>
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உமணர் சேர்ந்து கழிந்த மருங்கின் அகன்தலை</div>
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ஊர் பாழ்த்தன்ன ஓமையம் பெருங்காடு</div>
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(Kuruntokai 337, Cheraman Palai Padiya Perunkadunko,) </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the hero: Lord, if you say that it is painful to be in the vast wasteland with huge ōmai forests, resembling large desolate towns where salt merchants join together and leave,</div>
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நீரும் புல்லும் ஈயாது உமணர்</div>
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யாரும் இல் ஒரு சிறை முடத்தொடு துறந்த</div>
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வாழா வான் பகடு ஏய்ப்பத் தெறுவர்</div>
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Purananuru 307, Poet Unknown </div>
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Like a lame bull abandoned by salt merchants and unable to live without water and grass, he attacked his enemies and took their lives.</div>
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- ஓங்கித் தோன்றும் உமண் பொலி சிறுகுடி</div>
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Natrinai 374: 2, Vanparanar</div>
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There is a small village with salt merchants, which appears to be tall</div>
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உவர் விளை உப்பின் உழாஅ உழவர்</div>
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ஒழுகை உமணர் வரு பதம் நோக்கி</div>
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கானல் இட்ட காவற் குப்பை</div>
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புலவு மீன் உணங்கல் படு புள் ஓப்பி</div>
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மட நோக்கு ஆயமொடு உடன் ஊர்பு ஏறி</div>
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எந்தை திமில் இது நுந்தை திமில் என</div>
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வளை நீர் வேட்டம் போகிய கிளைஞர்</div>
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திண் திமில் எண்ணும் தண் கடற் சேர்ப்ப</div>
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Natrinai 331: 1-8, Ulochanar </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Oh lord of the seashore! When salt merchants come to the seashore and sell heaps of salt that is harvested without plowing, delicate-looking young girls who play with their friends as they dry fish and chase birds, climb on the boats on the shore and say, “This is my father’s boat,” “This is your father’s boat,” and count the sturdy boats of their relatives who went fishing in the ocean.</span><br />
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<b>Bartering System</b><br />
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Spatial variations in food production and consumption practices have been noted for thousands of years. Bartering was introduced by Mesopotamia tribes and has been around Sangam period. A barter system, dates all the way back to 6000 B.C., is an old method of exchange. The Sangam people had brisk internal trade. The wholesalers, retailers and hawkers had indulged themselves in brisk trade. Salt was the most popular item exchanged by several civilizations. Sangam people utilized the bartering system to get their food and spiced they needed. Paddy, produced in abundance in South India, was the common medium of exchange.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of trade was followed. Generally, the people exchanged their commodities with their neighbors. For example, the people of Kurinji region exchanged honey with the people of Neithal region for getting fish and salt. Likewise, the Mullai people gave their milk products to Marudham people to get rice from them.</span><br />
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தேனெய்யொடு கிழங்கு மாறியோர்</div>
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மீன் நெய்யொடு நறவு மறுகவும் </div>
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தீங் கரும்போடு அவல் வகுத்தோர்</div>
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மான் குறையொடு மது மறுகவும்</div>
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P orunaratruppadai 214 - 217</div>
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People barter honey and yams for fish oil and toddy. Those who sell sweet sugarcane and portions of flattened rice, barter</div>
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திமிலோன் தந்த கடுங்கண் வயமீன்</div>
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தழை அணி அல்குல் செல்வத் தங்கையர்</div>
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விழவு அயர் மறுகின் விலை எனப் பகரும்</div>
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Akananuru 320, Mathurai Koolavanikan Seethalai Sathanar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the hero The fishermen ride their boats on tall waves in the wide ocean and pull their nets with fierce strong fish, which their rich younger sisters with leaf skirts on their loins sell, calling out prices, on the streets with festivals, in a beautiful village with groves!</div>
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மான்ற மாலை மகிழ்ந்த பரதவர்</div>
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இனிது பெறு பெரு மீன் எளிதினின் மாறி</div>
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Natrinai 239, Kundriyanar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to her, as the hero listened nearby Happy fishermen sell their big fish that they caught happily at this confusing evening time. This is a beautiful, small village where crabs play in stinking sand, in the front yards of houses.</div>
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பசு மீன் நொடுத்த வெண்ணெல் மாஅத்</div>
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தயிர் மிதி மிதவை ஆர்த்துவம் நினக்கே</div>
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Akananuru 340, Nakkeeranar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the hero We will feed you gruel made with soft curds mixed with flour from white rice that we got selling fresh fish</div>
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Poet Ammoovanar describes in Akahanuru poem 140 about an young women who carried head loads of salt and exchanged for paddy from peasant woman. She shouted Young women also carried head loads of salt and exchanged for paddy from peasant woman. </div>
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கதழ்கோல் உமணர் காதல் மடமகள்</div>
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சில்கோல் எல்வளை தெளிர்ப்ப வீசி</div>
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நெல்லின் நேரே வெண்கல் உப்பெனச்</div>
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சேரிவிலை மாறு கூறலின். </div>
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Akananuru 140: 5 - 8, Ammoovanar, </div>
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What the hero said to his friend: She walks through the settlement with salt, swaying her hands, jingling her round, bright bangles and shouting, “equal measure of white grainy salt for rice paddy! (சேரி - street; விலைமாறு - Barter)</div>
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நெல்லும் உப்பும் நேரே ஊரீர்</div>
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கொள்ளீரோ எனச் சேரி தொறும் நுவலும்</div>
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Akananuru 390: 8 - 9, Ammoovanar, </div>
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What the hero said to his heart, or What the hero said to his friend: Salt merchant's girl went to all the settlements and called out, “Town people! Rice for salt, straight exchange! Will you barter?”</div>
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உப்பு நொடை நெல்லின் மூரல் வெண் சோறு<br />
Akananuru 60:4, Kudavayil Keerathanar,<br />
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<span style="text-align: left;"><span style="text-align: center;">What the heroine’s friend said to the hero, She brings food, white rice she got from bartering salt.</span> </span></div>
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In Pattinappalai p<span style="text-align: center;">oet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar describes the sturdy boats of salt merchants sailed in backwaters and they carried paddy. The paddy was obtained by salt merchants by bartering salt.,</span>.</div>
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குறும்பல்லூர் நெடுஞ்சோணாட்டு</div>
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வெள்ளை உப்பின் கொள்ளை சாற்றி</div>
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நெல்லொடு வந்த வல்வாய்ப் பஃறி</div>
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பணை நிலைப் புரவியின் அணை முதல் பிணிக்கும்</div>
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Pattinappalai 28 - 31, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, King Cholan Karikalan </div>
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Gardens and Groves of Kaviripoompattinam: In the huge Chola country with many small towns, sturdy boats with paddy got by bartering salt, are tied to posts on the shores of the backwaters, like horses tied in a stable.</div>
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உமணர் தந்த உப்பு நொடை நெல்லின்<br />
அயினி மா இன்று அருந்த<br />
Natrinai 254, Ulochanar<br />
What the heroine’s friend said to the hero: If you stay, your horses can eat the rice from paddy the salt merchants got selling their salt</div>
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Salt is a remarkable thing in human history. Salt served as money at various times and places. As a highly valued item of trade, salt trade routes crisscrossed the globe. It also served as a monetary exchange. The quest for salt has even resulted bitter warfare. In short, salt or common salt, the white granular substance, has been essential to all life, especially with respect to its long and varied history.<br />
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<b>Reference</b></div>
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<ol>
<li>A brief and fascinating history of salt. http://beyondtheshaker.com/pages/salt-guide/salt-guide-history.html</li>
<li>A contribution to the history of common salt. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9185119/</li>
<li>History of Ancient Salt https://thegreenlivingcenter.com/node/134</li>
<li>Europe's 'oldest prehistoric town' unearthed in Bulgaria http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-20156681</li>
<li>History of Salt http://smartsalt.rsconsulting.fi/history-of-salt.html</li>
<li>Saharan salt caravans ply ancient route http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mauritania-caravan-idUSL162118220070221</li>
<li>Salary: Salt Money https://etymology.quora.com/Salary-Salt-Money</li>
<li>Salina Turda Wikipedia </li>
<li>Salt http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=SALT</li>
<li>Salt https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/salt</li>
<li>Salt, the ancient food preserver. https://collegekitchenscience.wordpress.com/tag/sodium-chloride/</li>
<li>Sodium chloride Formula - Sodium chloride Uses, Properties, Structure and Formula http://www.softschools.com/formulas/chemistry/sodium_chloride_uses_properties_structure_formula/255/</li>
<li>Tuzla Wikipedia</li>
<li>What is Sodium Chloride? - Definition, Structure & Formula http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-sodium-chloride-definition-structure-formula.html</li>
<li>What is the origin of the hindi phrase "Namak-haram" or "namak-halal"? https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-origin-of-the-hindi-phrase-Namak-haram-or-namak-halal</li>
<li>உப்புத் தொழில் – அம்மா உப்பை முன்வைத்து ஒரு பார்வை http://www.vinavu.com/2014/06/12/amma-salt-and-salt-industry-in-india/</li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">சங்க இலக்கியங்கள் காட்டும் உமணர் வாழ்வியல் கு. ஜீவாலட்சுமி </span><span style="text-align: left;">http://www.muthukamalam.com/essay/literature/p102.html</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் பரதவர்கள் http://www.heritagevembaru.org/2016/02/blog-post_17.html</span></li>
<li><div style="text-align: left;">
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</li>
<li>சங்க இலக்கிய பிரதிகளின் காலம்- பழந்தொழில்கள் - சார்தரவுகள். வீ.அரசு http://keetru.com/index.php/2010-06-24-04-31-11/1659-2013-sp-142/25619-2013-11-28-10-30-34</li>
<li>பரமசிவன், தொ. பண்பாட்டு அசைவுகள். காலச்சுவடு. 2010. ரூ 200.00.</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-65218337494376166832017-06-27T04:22:00.001-07:002017-06-27T04:22:38.375-07:00Sugarcane in Sangam Literature<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Sugarcane is a tall perennial, thick-stemmed, colourful, soft and juicy, plant growing erect even up to 5 to 6 meters. Botanically the genus Saccharum is in the family Poaceae, sub-family Panicoidae, in the major group Angiosperms (Flowering plants). "In 1753, Linnaeus established this genus Saccharum along with the other crop plants in his master-piece Species Plantarum." There are around 200 species under genus Saccharum. Six species have been identified in the genus Saccharum viz., S. officinarum, S. barberi, S. sinense, S. robustum, S. edule and S. spontaneum. Saccharum officinarum is the type species of sugarcane. Approximately 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species. "The word saccharum owes its origin to the Sanskrit word 'sarkara' or 'sakkara' meaning sugar. This became 'sukkar' in Arabic and 'Sakharon' in Greek."</div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">History of Sugarcane is 8000 years old. When people migrating from the Indochina area to New Guinea in the South Pacific during ancient times they discovered wild sugar cane. New Guinean farmers domesticated different species of sugarcane i.e., Saccharum edule and Saccharum officinarum. The crop was probably first cultivated in the island of New Guinea. </span>Originally, people chewed sugarcane raw to extract its sweetness. From about 8000 B.C. on, people migrated from New Guinea to the nearby Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides and then to New Caledonia taking a cultivated form of sugarcane with them. About 2000 years later sugarcane reached Indonesia, the Philippines, and then Northern India. From Northern India sugarcane species (Saccharum barberi) spread to China around 800 B.C. Sugarcane has a very long history of cultivation in the Indian sub-continent. The earliest reference to it from Atharva Veda (1500 - 800 B.C.). The text is shown below:<br />
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<i>“This plant is born of honey, with honey do we dig for thee. Of honey thou art begotten, do thou make us full of honey!</i><br />
<i>At the tip of my tongue may I have honey, at my tongue’s root the sweetness of honey! In my power alone shalt thou then be, thou shalt come up to my wish!</i><br />
<i>Sweet as honey is my entrance, sweet as honey my departure. With my voice do I speak sweet as honey, may I become like honey!</i><br />
<i>I am sweeter than honey, fuller of sweetness than licorice. Mayest thou, without fail, long for me alone, (as a bee) for a branch full of honey!”</i><br />
<i>I have surrounded thee with a clinging sugarcane, to remove aversion, so that thou shalt not be averse to me!”</i><br />
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The word "Chakara" was frequently referred in many Sanskrit texts. Ayurvedic authors Charaka and Susruta mentioned the sugarcane in many places. Susruta samhita listed 12 varieties. The best of which were called Vamshika (with thin reeds) and Paundraka (which came from the Bengal region).<br />
The sugarcane bow and the five flower arrows are described as the weapon of the god Kamadeva.<br />
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Sugarcane was originally grown for the sole purpose of chewing. Extraction of sugarcane juice and preparation of sugar by boiling the juice commenced from India. during first million B.C. According to Jain legend their first Thirthankara Rishabadeva (Adi Nath) was the one who taught the people of extraction of sugarcane juice. Machines (jiantra) for crushing sugarcanes are mentioned in a description of the winter season in the Upamitibhava prapancha katha, a Jain literature in Sanskrit..<br />
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The sugarcane plant and the cane-sugar are frequently mentioned in the Institutes of Manu. The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India around 400 B.C. Indus Valley civilization shows evidence on their knowledge about sugarcane and sugar extraction. Indus Valley people used crystallized sugar. .The sugar technology was commercially perfected around 700 A.D.<br />
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Sugarcane was also found in Persia in 510 B.C. and the Persian military expedition records have information about sugarcane. Nearchos, the admiral of Alexander the Great also confirms the same.</div>
Vedic Aryans in India cultivated barley, rice and sugarcane.<br />
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<b>Tamil Sangam Literature</b><br />
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Sangam literature abounds in reference to the sugarcane. Agriculture was the main occupation of Sangam Tamils and importance of agriculture in Tamilakam was well recognized through Eight anthologies and Ten idylls. There was a steady progress in the reclamation of forests and wastelands during Sangam era. Chola king Karikala is considered as the pioneer in ancient Tamilakam to initiate the task of reclamation. In Pattinappalai poet <span style="text-align: center;">Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar vividly describe the act of reclamation of king Karkalan.</span><br />
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காடு கொன்று நாடாக்கிக்</div>
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குளம் தொட்டு வளம் பெருக்கி </div>
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(Pattinappalai 283 - 284 <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">poet </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar</span>)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Karikalan destroyed forests and made them habitable, dug ponds, expanded his capital city of Uranthai,</span></div>
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The fertility of the lands watered by the Cauvery is a recurring theme of Tamil poets. Cultivation was apparently carried on in the time tested methods by the peasants of Tamilakam. The natural forest produce of Pari's principality included bamboo, rice, jack-f ruit, the valli root, and honey. Ragi, sugarcane, pepper, turmeric and cotton were cultivated. Sugarcane was cultivated in the prosperous 'Marutam' fields surrounded by water as a wet crop along with the paddy.<br />
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ஆர் குருகு உறங்கும் நீர் சூழ் வள வயல்</div>
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கழனிக் கரும்பின் சாய்ப் புறம் ஊர்ந்து</div>
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பழன யாமை பசு வெயில் கொள்ளும்</div>
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நெல்லுடை மறுகின் நன்னர் ஊர</div>
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Akananuru 306, Mathurai Koolavankian Seethalai Sathanar,</div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the unfaithful hero, refusing him entry: Oh man from the fine town, where a heron eats and sleeps on a mango tree whose tender sprouts gently rubs its body, and a field tortoise rests in the warm sun on the side where sugarcanes are leaning in the prosperous field surrounded by water!</div>
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Athiyaman Neduman Anji was one of the most powerful Tamil Velir cheiftain of the Sangam period. Poet Avvaiyar was his court poet. It is established from Avvaiyar's Purananuru poem 99 that Atiyars have introduced sugarcane cultivation in the Tamil country.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Adhiyaman_avvaikku_nellikani_vazhanguthal.jpg (1600×1200)" height="300" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Adhiyaman_avvaikku_nellikani_vazhanguthal.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Athiyaman Neduman Anji and Poet Avvaiyar PC: Wikimedia</td></tr>
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அமரர்ப் பேணியும் ஆவுதி அருத்தியும்</div>
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அரும் பெறல் மரபின் கரும்பு இவண் தந்தும்</div>
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நீர் அக இருக்கை ஆழி சூட்டிய</div>
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தொல் நிலை மரபின் நின் முன்னோர் போல</div>
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Purananuru 99 Poet Avvaiyar sang to Athiyaman Neduman Anji</div>
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Like your ancestors of ancient tradition who served the gods and offered oblations to secure the gift that is hard to obtain, sugarcane for this land,</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="adhiyaman-kottai-4.jpg (700×525)" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimuvnbiaE2cOUIlo-SjAMYHefEdpx5OnhkKQ7LRf2WvroNku3UnOh75kuinkoI_-TSvUHnqVXvKZfxLvNBhnVRjOEJ1NS0K0HdpNTsknl2ZJ3BivY3S9Nzn0Qn73Ouj115KQ3bNI5jndIJ/s400/adhiyaman-kottai-4.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Athiyaman neduman Anji Introduced Sugarcane. Museum @ Dharmapuri</td></tr>
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... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... அந்தரத்து</div>
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அரும் பெறல் அமிழ்தம் அன்ன</div>
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கரும்பு இவண் தந்தோன் பெரும் பிறங்கடையே.</div>
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Purananuru 392 Poet Avvaiyar sang to Athiyaman Neduman Anji's son Poruttu Elini</div>
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that great heir (Atiyan) who brought us sugarcane, precious to obtain like divine nectar, from the land beyond.</div>
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கரும்பு நடு பாத்தி அன்ன<br />
பெருங்களிற்று அடி வழி நிலைஇய நீரே.<br />
Kurunthokai 262: 7 - 8, Cheraman Palai Padiya Perunkadunko,<br />
Elephant foot prints are compared to like the garden beds (பாத்தி) of sugarcane planting holes<br />
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இலங்கு பூங்கரும்பின் ஏர் கழை இருந்த</div>
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வெண் குருகு நரல வீசும்</div>
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Akananuru 13, Perunthalai Sāthanar,</div>
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white herons call from the beautiful sugarcanes with bright flowers</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="5735536379_20e747297e_b.jpg (1024×768)" height="300" src="https://c1.staticflickr.com/4/3201/5735536379_20e747297e_b.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thick - stemmed white flowers of tall sugarcane</td></tr>
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... ... ... .... ..... ...... அகல் வயல்<br />
நீடு கழைக் கரும்பின் கணைக்கால் வான் பூக்<br />
கோடைப் பூளை யின் வாடையொடு துயல்வர<br />
Akananuru 217:3-5, Kalarkeeran Eyitriyanar,<br />
In the vast fields, thick- stemmed, white flowers of tall sugarcane sway in the northerly winds like the poolai flowers of summer.<br />
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இரும் பல் மெல் அணை ஒழிய கரும்பின்</div>
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வேல் போல் வெண் முகை விரியத் தீண்டி</div>
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Natrinai 366:7-8, Mathurai Eelathu Poothan Thevanar,</div>
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The cold northern wind blows, opening the spear-like white buds of sugarcanes,</div>
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The Chola wet land received water from Cauvery river and water irrigation was abundant to raise paddy. They have also cultivated sugarcane around the paddy fields. The sugarcane provided a fence to the paddy field. It is also learned that the Chola farmers cultivated double crop. </div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="3562752135_631e892ece_z.jpg (640×426)" height="266" src="https://s3.amazonaws.com/plantvillage-production/images/pics/000/004/893/large/3562752135_631e892ece_z.jpg?1429122058" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sugarcane flower <span style="font-size: x-small;">கரும்பின் வெண்பூ</span></td></tr>
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அலங்கு கதிர்க் கனலி நால்வயின் தோன்றினும்<br />
இலங்கு கதிர் வெள்ளி தென்புலம் படரினும்<br />
அம் தண் காவிரி வந்து கவர்பு ஊட்டத்<br />
தோடு கொள் வேலின் தோற்றம் போல<br />
ஆடு கண் கரும்பின் வெண்பூ நுடங்கும்<br />
Purananuru 35: 6 - 9 Poet Vellaikudi Nakanār sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan<br />
Your country alone is truly a country where lovely, cool Kāviri flows and feeds the land, and appearing like spears, dancing flowers of sugarcanes with nodes sway!<br />
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செய் தொழிலான் வியர்ப்பு அறியாமை</div>
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ஈத்தோன் எந்தை இசை தனது ஆக</div>
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வயலே நெல்லின் வேலி நீடிய கரும்பின்</div>
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பாத்திப் பன்மலர்ப் பூத் ததும்</div>
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Purananuru 386: 8 - 11 Poet Kovur Kilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan</div>
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The Chola king's fields are full of flowers that bloom among the patches of sugarcane that are fences for the paddy fields,</div>
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முரசுடைச் செல்வர் புரவிச் சூட்டும்</div>
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மூட்டுறு கவரி தூக்கியன்ன</div>
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செழுஞ்செய் நெல்லின் சேயரிப் புனிற்றுக் கதிர்</div>
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மூதா தின்றல் அஞ்சிக் காவலர்</div>
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பாகல் ஆய் கொடிப் பகன்றையொடு பரீஇக்</div>
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காஞ்சியின் அகத்துக் கரும்பு அருத்தி யாக்கும்</div>
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Akananuru 156: 1 - 6 Poet Avur Moolankilar </div>
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Oh man from the town with sweet streams, where thick, fine paddy grows, high like lifted tufts adorning the horses owned by rich kings with drums, and field guards protect the tender paddy grains from old cows by tying them to kānji trees with ropes made from the vines of beautiful bittermelon and pakandrai, and feeding them sugarcane!</div>
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In Purananuru poem 42: 13 -14 (அறைநர் கரும்பிற் கொண்ட தேனும்) Arainar or the person responsible for cutting sugarcane and also responsible for extracting sap from the sugarcane stems. Puranauru poem 322: 7 - 10 describes vividly the mechanical equipment<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>to make sugarcane juice. Please note the use of term (<span style="text-align: center;">எந்திரம்) for sugarcane press. The </span>farmers also discovered how to crystallize sugar,probably carried out through the simple process of crushing cut-pieces of cane by a heavy weight and boiling the juice extracted and stirring until solids formed.These solids being of uneven shapes and sizes were called jaggery </div>
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கரும்பின் எந்திரம் சிலைப்பின் அயலது<br />
இருஞ்சுவல் வாளை பிறழும் ஆங்கண்<br />
தண் பணை ஆளும் வேந்தர்க்குக்<br />
கண்படை ஈயா வேலோன் ஊரே.<br />
(Purananuru 322: 7 - 10 Poet Avur Kilar,)<br />
In the wasteland city, whose leader is a spearman who grants no sleep to kings of cool cities where the loud sounds of a sugarcane press in the hard land cause a vālai fish with a thick neck to leap nearby.<br />
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கரும்பின் எந்திரம் களிற்று எதிர் பிளிற்றும்</div>
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தேர் வண் கோமான் தேனூர் அன்ன இவள்</div>
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நல் அணி நயந்து நீ துறத்தலின்</div>
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பல்லோர் அறியப் பசந்தன்று நுதலே.</div>
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Ainkurunuru 55, Poet Orampokiyar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to the hero: You desired my pretty friend who resembles Thenur, where the king donates chariots, and sugarcane presses roar like bull elephants. Since you abandoned her, her forehead has become pale, and many have noticed it.</div>
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மழை விளையாடும் கழை வளர் அடுக்கத்து<br />
அணங்குடை யாளி தாக்கலின் பல உடன்<br />
கணம் சால் வேழம் கதழ்வுற்றாங்கு<br />
எந்திரம் சிலைக்கும் துஞ்சாக் கம்பலை<br />
விசயம் அடூஉம் புகை சூழ் <span style="color: red;">ஆலைதொறும்</span><br />
<span style="color: red;">கரும்பின் தீம்சாறு</span> விரும்பினிர் மிசைமின்<br />
(Perumpanatruppadai 257-262 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar king Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)<br />
Sugarcane Juice in the Sugar Mills: The unending, roaring sounds of equipment in every sugarmill where sugarcane juice is boiled, surrounded by smoke, are like the screams of many<br />
elephants that are attacked by an āliin the bamboo growing mountains where clouds play. There you can drink sweet sugarcane juice as much as you desire.<br />
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The fertility of the soil of Cauvery delta was the pet theme of poets of Sangam era. The land of Chola had plenty of water for irrigation and was known as 'Punal Nadu' (the land well irrigated). In the idylls of Pattinappalai, poet <span style="text-align: center;">Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar </span>speaks about the prosperity of agricultural lands in Kaviripoompattinam, the capital city of Chola land ruled by king Karikala is thus described vividly: </div>
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வான் பொய்ப்பினும் தான் பொய்யா</div>
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மலைத் தலைய கடல் காவிரி</div>
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புனல் பரந்து பொன் கொழிக்கும் </div>
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விளைவு அறா வியன் கழனி </div>
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<span style="color: red;">கார்க் கரும்பின் கமழ் ஆலைத்</span></div>
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தீத் தெறுவின் கவின்</div>
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வாடி நீர்ச் செறுவின் நீள் நெய்தல்</div>
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பூச்சாம்பும் ... ... ... ... ... ... ...</div>
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(Pattinappalai 1 - 12, Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar king Cholan Karikalan)</div>
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Kaviri’s Pride: Kaviri, which starts in the mountains and ends in the ocean, does not fail. Its flowing water spreads and showers abundant prosperity. There are continuous yields from wide fields. Fragrant smells waft from sugar mills and heat from their fires wilt the waterlilies in nearby fields, making them lose their beauty.</div>
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<span style="color: red;">பொங்கழி ஆலை</span>ப் புகையொடும் பரந்து</div>
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மங்குல் வானத்து மலையிற் றோன்றும்</div>
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Silappatikaram Nadukan Kathai 150 - 152</div>
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The smoke of sugarcane pressing factory spreads around the mountain heap of straw and appear like the dark cloud.<br />
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<b>Reference:</b></div>
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li style="text-align: justify;">Adhiyaman Neduman Anci Wikipedia</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Agricultural Practices as gleaned from the Tamil Literature of the Sangam Age. Srinivasan TM. Indian Journal of History of Science. 51.2.1 (2016). 167 - 169pp. http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol51_2016_2_1_Art01.pdf</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">History of Sugar http://www.sugarhistory.net/who-made-sugar/history-of-sugar/</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sugarcane Wikipedia</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sugarcane : Classification http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/sugarcane</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sugarcane: History and Cultivation of Sugarcane http://www.biologydiscussion.com/economic-botany/sugarcane/sugarcane-history-and-cultivation-of-sugarcane/52864</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sugar History Willem H. Kampen http://www.lsuagcenter.com/portals/communications/publications/agmag/archive/2002/fall/sugarcane-history</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">The Sugarcane Bow. Phil Hine. http://enfolding.org/wikis-4/tantra-wikiwikis-4tantra-wiki/tantra_essays/the-sugarcane-bow/</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">The Sugarcane Mystery: Indus valley and the Ikshvaku Dynasty. Tamil and Vedas. https://tamilandvedas.com/2011/11/19/the-sugarcane-mystery-indus-valley-and-the-ikshvaku-dynasty/</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">What is Sugarcane? History of Sugar Cane http://www.chewingcane.com/sugarcane_history.html</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">பண்டைத் தமிழ் இலக்கியங்களில் கரும்பு. வெ பெருமாள்சாமி http://www.valaitamil.com/old-tamil-literature-is-sugarcane_9464.html</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-54458169368728544552017-06-17T01:10:00.001-07:002017-06-17T01:10:44.126-07:00Kolli Hills: Ancient Hill of Valvil Ori, a Sangam Chieftain<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kolli Hills (கொல்லி மலை), the "Mountains of Death," is a small mountain range located in Kollimalai taluk, Namakkal district, Tamil Nadu, India. Most parts of the Kolli hills are located in Namakkal district and few parts are situated in Tiruchirapalli district. <span style="text-align: justify;">The Kolli Hills forms part of the Eastern Ghats. </span>It is also forming part of the Trichy & Namakkal Forest Division of Tamil Nadu. <span style="text-align: justify;">The geographical coordinates of Kolli mountain ranges are 10°12' - 11°7'N latitude and 76° - 77°56'E longitude and the hill is 305 m (1000 feet) high from sea level and spans an area of 280 sq.km. It is located 24 km towards east from Namakkal, 27.4 km from Rasipuram, 40 km from Karur, 53 km from Salem, </span>67 km from Attur, <span style="text-align: justify;">107 km from Tiruchirapalli, 200 km from Coimbatore, 258 km from Banagluru and 331 km from Chennai. There are several villages located in this hill range. </span>The postal head office is Semmedu PIN code 637411 and the village <span style="text-align: left;">comes under Valavanthi Nadu Panchayat. This p</span>opular village in Kolli hills has few shops, hotels, primary health center and telephone exchange. Also there is a statue of Valvil Ori, renowned Sangam chieftain. Namagiripettai, Thammampatti, Namakkal and Rasipuram are the nearby towns to Kolli Hills.<br />
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<b>Tourist Attractions</b><br />
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Kolli Hills is an unspoilt , unknown Hill station with a pleasant cool climate which never rises above 30ºC or falls below 13ºC. It <span style="text-align: left;">is one of the few places that still retains its natural beauty and is untouched by commercial activities and exploitation. </span><span style="text-align: left;">Located on the Eastern Ghats, Kolli Hills </span><span style="text-align: left;">offers the most splendid of the surrounding greenery. It is an ideal nature's retreat for tourists and locals. </span>It has 72 hair pen bends to reach the top of the hills. To enjoy the salubrious climate plan<span style="text-align: left;"> a holiday to this nature’s destination soon.</span></div>
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The Kollihills is connected by road and you can easily reach there from Namakkal or Salem or Attur. Nowadays the Bus service is provided up to Arappaleeswarar Temple. BSNL (earlier DOT) established the first Telecommunication networks (LDPCO) in 1977 and afterwards the Telecom facilities are continuously expanded depending upon the requirements at Kolli hills.</div>
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Kolli Hills attractions include the spectacular Agasagangai water falls, Arappaleeswarar temple, and Ettukkai Amman temple. The hill also has spectacular view points and the visitors should not miss while at this hills. They include Belukurichi tract, Hairpin Bend view points at 34, 35, 37, Masilla falls, Namma Falls, Boat House and State Botanical Garden. Get clear views of valley side at Sirumalai View Point, Selur Wireless view point, Seekuparai viewpoint and Binnam View Point. Other favorite destinations could be the ancient ruins of Britisher Bungalow, Wood House & Jain statue and Puranikadu Sat Dharma sangam ashram<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/SKY_GANGES.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="600" height="400" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/SKY_GANGES.JPG" width="300" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Agasagangai Waterfalls PC: Wikimedia</td></tr>
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<b>Agasagangai:</b> Agasagangai, the waterfall of the Aiyaru river, is truly the spectacular sight as the water cascades down from 300 feet, covering all around. The visitor needs to climb down the 1000 and odd steps along the mountain edge leading to the waterfalls. It is very close to Arapaleeswarar temple.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="T_500_1023.jpg (500×350)" src="http://img1.dinamalar.com/Kovilimages/T_500_1023.jpg" height="280" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arappaleeswarar Temple PC: Dinamalar</td></tr>
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<b>Arapaleeswarar temple: </b>The Arapaleeswarar Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is popularly believed to have been built by Valvil Ori around first or second century A.D. The temple is located in Periyakoviloor close to Agasagangai waterfall. The temple bear inscriptions dating back to the Chola period. Megalithic burial site was also discovered closer to the temple.<br />
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<b>Siddha Caves: </b>It is widely believed that Tamil Siddhars (yogic saints) dwell in this hill. They are known for their alchemy and knowledge over medicinal herbs. Some of the important herbs found in this hill include Jothippul (ஜோதிப்புல்), Saynthadum Pavai (சாய்ந்தாடும் பாவை), Amala (black species) (கருநெல்லி), Red Aloe vera (சிவப்பு கற்றாழை), Black Banana (கருவாழை), Red Myrobalan (சிவப்புக் கடுக்காய்), Roma Virutcham (ரோம விருட்சம்) etc.,The caves of Bogar and Agastya are situated near the Agasagangai waterfalls, while Korakka Siddha and Kalaanginatha Siddhais deep inside the forest area<br />
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<b>Semmedu: </b>Popularly known village to locals and is located on the main road leading to hill summit. At Semmedu the state government organizes Valvil Ori Cultural and Tourism Festival in August. The festival is being organized during August, since people from 16 villages used to assemble together to celebrate Adi (Tamil month) festival during Valvil Ori's rule.<br />
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<b>Vaasaloorpatti: </b>An important village on the main road. The village houses the Government Fruit Farm. is located. Paddy varieties are cultivated in the valley and a variety of hybrid and native fruits such as banana, jack fruit, oranges, coffee, pepper and spices are grown on the slopes here.<br />
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<b>Solakkadu: </b>Solakkadu is another important village and one of the highest points in the hills and is. located on the main road leading to hill summit. The spectacular viewpoint inside the Highways Bungalow premises is worth visiting. </div>
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<b>Kollippavai “Maiden of death”</b></div>
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Sangam literature vividly depicts the lofty peaks of Kolli hills covered with clouds. Due to abundant rainfall Kolli Hill is blessed with fragrant flowers like iruvatchi, jasmine and kanthal. Kolli Hills is known for the special variety of paddy grown here.<br />
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Kolli Hills is believed to have by Kollipavai ("Maiden of death"), the local deity. The legend states that the sages chose Kolli hills for a peaceful place to do their penance. Despite, the demons marched aggressively to the hills to interrupt the penance. The sages invoked the goddess Kollipavai to save their rituals. The goddess became ferocious and annihilated the demons. The goddess Kollipavai is still being worshiped here as Ettukai Amman by the people in Kolli hills and her smile is revered by the locals. Ettukai Amman Temple is an ancient temple located four km from Kolli Hills. The small temple, a palm leaf hut not protected by doors, attracts numerous pilgrims on Amavasai or no moon days. The idol appear with eight hands and hence the name Ettu Kai amman (Goddess with eight hands). The ideal is often covered with sandal paste to cool the ferociousness.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="ettukai-amman-temple.jpg (368×364)" height="395" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh15Sx0Dk6MHfZBetGA0si2kEH409uEGdKbWoDXx0BDEdsljxbiu1yz0n57DCbPMUMId6xkDWkYJy82h4uFBtFVTkGRWztZV8yhBtBI5_f4ryBh-uQgZ4Bvp3UvbjobzWc2TlCAvQbF6Kp2/s400/ettukai-amman-temple.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ettukkai Amman Temple PC: Hindu Blog</td></tr>
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Sangam literature and Silappatikaram have references about this deity. Kuruntokai poem 89 refers Kolli-Kutavarai (<span style="text-align: center;">கொல்லிக் குட வரை), a mountain slope located on western side of Kolli Hills. Kutamalai (</span>குடமலை) means western side mountain. There was an amazing painting of Kollippavai drawn on the face of the rock. Also there was a crystal clear fountain nearby, wherein bluish Kuvalai (blue waterlily) flower just in blossom.<br />
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பெரும் பூண் பொறையன் பேஎமுதிர் <span style="color: red;">கொல்லிக்</span></div>
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கருங்கண் தெய்வம் <span style="color: red;">குட வரை</span> எழுதிய</div>
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நல் இயல் பாவை அன்ன... ...</div>
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Kurunthokai 89: 4 - 7, Paranar, </div>
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What the heroine’s friend said to her, as the hero listened nearby: My friend with delicate features, like the fine goddess, painted by a fierce, ancient, black-eyed god on the west side of Kolli Mountain</div>
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of Poraiyan with heavy jewels! (Poraiyan is a name used for the Chera kings).</div>
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... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... <span style="color: red;">குட்டுவன்</span><br />
குட வரைச் சுனைய மா இதழ்க் குவளை<br />
Natrinai 105: 7 - 8, Poet Mudathirumaran,<br />
What the hero said to his heart: The dark-petaled, blue waterlily blossoms from Kuttuvan’s western mountain springs! (Kuttuvan is a name used for the Chera kings).<br />
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பயங் கெழு பலவின் <span style="color: red;">கொல்லிக் குட வரைப்</span></div>
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பூதம் புணர்த்த புதிது இயல் பாவை</div>
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விரி கதிர் இள வெயில் தோன்றி அன்ன நின்</div>
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ஆய் நலம் உள்ளி வரின் எமக்கு</div>
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ஏமம் ஆகும் மலை முதல் ஆறே.</div>
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Natrinai 192, Poet Unknown </div>
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In Kurinji terrain the hero consoles his lady love when she feared about the dangers to be encountered on their path. O beautiful, dark lady who is pretty like the new <b>Kolli goddess</b> that has been installed by goblins on the west side of the mountain where beneficial jack fruit trees grow! I think about your beauty like the sun with spreading rays. It is protection to me when I come on the mountain path!</div>
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செவ் வேர்ப் பலவின் பயம் கெழு கொல்லித்</div>
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தெய்வம் காக்கும் தீது தீர் நெடுங் கோட்டு</div>
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அவ் வெள் அருவிக் குட வரையகத்து</div>
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கால் பொருது இடிப்பினும் கதழ் உறை கடுகினும்</div>
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உரும் உடன்று எறியினும் ஊறு பல தோன்றினும்</div>
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பெரு நிலம் கிளரினும் திரு நல உருவின்</div>
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<span style="color: red;">மாயா இயற்கைப் பாவை</span>யின்</div>
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போதல் ஒல்லாள் என் நெஞ்சத்தானே.</div>
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Natrinai 201: 5 - 12, Poet Paranar,</div>
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Even if strong winds blow, even if heavy rains pour rapidly, even if thunder roars, even if many hindrances arise, even if the big earth swells up on the tall, faultless peaks in the western mountains with white waterfalls and jackfruit trees with red roots, protected by the benevolent <b>Kolli Mountain goddess</b>,</div>
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கடுங்கண் வேழத்துக் கோடு நொடுத்து உண்ணும்</div>
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<span style="color: red;">வல்வில் ஓரி கொல்லிக் குட வரைப்</span></div>
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<span style="color: red;">பாவையின்</span> மடவந் தனளே</div>
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மணத்தற்கு அரிய பணைப் பெருந்தோளே.</div>
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Kurunthokai 100: 4-7, Kapilar, </div>
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The girl with wide arms like bamboo is hard to embrace, and delicate like Kolli goddess who resides on the westside of strong-bowed Ori’s mountain,</div>
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ஈங்கே வருவாள் இவள் யார் கொல் ஆங்கே ஓர்</div>
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வல்லவன் தைஇய <span style="color: red;">பாவை </span>கொல் நல்லார்</div>
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உறுப்பு எலாம் கொண்டு இயற்றியாள் கொல் வெறுப்பினால்</div>
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வேண்டு உருவம் கொண்டது ஓர் கூற்றம் கொல்</div>
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Kalitokai 56: 6 - 9</div>
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Who is this girl who has come here, her face surrounded by hair braids decorated with mature clusters of blossoms from thick, shade-providing gnālal trees near the pond in the grove in town, appearing like the wide moon with sweet beams, her locks with pollen hanging low on her shoulders? There, she is like a statue made by a skilled artist. Was she created from beautiful parts of many women? Is she Death that attained a woman’s form due to its hatred for men? </div>
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<b>Sangam Polity</b><br />
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Tamilakam (தமிழகம்) during Sangam period was divided among the three political powers, the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras and the three capitals were Pukar (புகார்), Madurai (மதுரை), and Vanji (வஞ்சி). They are known as crowned kings (முடியுடை மூவேந்தர்). Whenever the crowned kings conquered the feudal territories, they never annexed them to their kingdom. Instead they allowed the feudal to function as an autonomous states under their suzerainty. Thus there were number of feudatories or chieftaincies in Tamilakam These chieftaincies evolved as a landed aristocracy and in course of time they might have acted as soldiers, warriors, generals and even ministers to their suzerains..<br />
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Some chieftains exercised vast powers of internal autonomy within their respective territories. However they owned some kind of nominal allegiance to one or more of the the crowned kings. Number of references can be seen about the internecine warfare between the crowned kings and the vassals in Sangam literature, The reason for these feuds could be the breaking of personal loyalty to their over-lords and refusal to pay tribute.<br />
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The chieftains are also tribal clan in character. For example Pegan belongs to Aviyar tribe or clan, Athiyan and Ori belongs to Malavar, tribe or clan. Velir chieftains ruled various parts of Tamilakam and enjoyed the privilege giving their daughters in marriage to the crowned kings. They are celebrated personalities and treated next to the crowned kings. Those chieftains who acted as the guardians of the garrisons (known as Kurumbu) in the border areas.<br />
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<b>Seven Great Bestowers</b><br />
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Sirupanatruppadai, one of the Ten Idylls, is sung on Oyman Nalliyakodan, the chieftain Oyma nadu by Nallur Nathathanar of Idaikkazhinadu, The poem lines 84 to 112 also speaks about the greatness of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்) and they include: 1. Pegan of Aviyar clan (வையாவிக் கோப்பெரும் பேகன்), 2. Vel Pari, the Lord of Parambu (வேள் பாரி), 3. Kari (மலையமான் திருமுடி காரி), 4. Ay Andiran (ஆய் அண்டிரன்), 5. Athikan (அதிகன்), 6. Nalli (நளி மலை நாடன் நள்ளி) and 7. Valvil Ori (வல்வில் ஓரி). Athikan is also known as Athiyaman.<br />
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Purananuru poem 158 sung on Kumanan (குமணன்), chieftain of Mutiram hills (முதிரமலை) by Poet Perunchithiranar (பெருஞ்சித்திரனார்) also mentions about the greatness of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்). Instead Athikan (அதிகன்) at srl. no. 5, the poem includes Ezhini (எழினி), the chieftain of Kutirai hills (குதிரைமலை நாடு).<br />
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<b>Rulers of Kolli Hills</b></div>
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The 16 tribal counties called as "nadu" (நாடு) once constituted the historical mountain kingdom of Kolli Hills. and they include Valavanthi nadu (வாழவந்தி நாடு), Valappur nadu (வளப்பூர் நாடு), Ariyur nadu (அரியூர் நாடு), Thinnur nadu (தின்னனூர் நாடு), Guntur nadu (குண்டூர் நாடு), Selur nadu (சேளூர் நாடு), Devanur nadu (தேவனூர் நாடு), Alandur nadu (ஆலந்தூர் நாடு), Gunduni nadu (குண்டுனி நாடு), Tirupuli nadu (திருப்புலி நாடு), Edapuli nadu (எடப்புலி நாடு), Chitur nadu (சித்தூர் நாடு), Perakkarai nadu (பெரக்கரை நாடு), Peyil nadu (பெயில் நாடு), Pallappadi nadu (பள்ளப்பாடி நாடு) and Pudukombai nadu (புதுக்கோம்பை நாடு). (The 16 countries still survive and there are about 200 villages located in Kolli Hills.). Sangam literature speaks about two rulers of Kolli Hills 1. Valvil Ori (வல்வில் ஓரி), Sangam Tamil Chieftain; and 2. Perum-cheral Irumporai, the Chera ruler. Valvil Ori picked up an enmity with Perum-Cheral-Irumporai, whose capital was Karur. Ori was killed by Malayaman Tirumudi Kari in a pitched battle .Kari gave Kolli Hills as a gift to Perum-Cheral-Irumporai and the Chera succeeded after Valvil Ori's death. </div>
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<b>Valvil Ori</b></div>
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Valvil Ori ruled over the Kolli Hills in Tamilakam around 200 A.D. He loved music and dance. Ori's swift horse was also named as Ori. His father was known as Oothan (ஊதன்). May be for this reason Vanparanar addresses him as Athan Ori (<span style="text-align: center;">ஆதன் ஓரி)</span>:</div>
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மழை அணி குன்றத்துக் கிழவன் நாளும்</div>
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இழை அணி யானை இரப்போர்க்கு ஈயும்</div>
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சுடர்விடு பசும் பூண் சூர்ப்பு அமை முன் கை</div>
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அடு போர் ஆனா <span style="color: red;">ஆதன் ஓரி</span></div>
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Purananuru 153, Poet Vanparanar sang for Valvil Ori</div>
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Rain-like great generosity of Ōri who never ceases to wage murderous battles, lord of a mountain decorated by clouds, wearing curved bracelets that shoot out rays, who gives awayeach day, elephants with adornments.</div>
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He was one of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்). In Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை), poet Nallur Nathathanar of Idaikkazhinadu (இடைக்கழி நாட்டு நல்லூர் நத்தத்தனார்) eulogizes Valvil Ori in the poem lines 107 - 111.<br />
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…………………….. நளி சினை</div>
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நறும் போது கஞலிய நாகு முதிர் நாகத்து</div>
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குறும் பொறை நல் நாடு கோடியர்க்கு ஈந்த</div>
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காரிக் குதிரைக் காரியொடு மலைந்த </div>
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ஓரிக் குதிரை ஓரியும் </div>
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(Sirupanatruppadai 107 - 111, P<span style="text-align: justify;">oet Nallur Nathathanar of Idaikkazhinadu</span>)</div>
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Ori, owner of a horse named Ōri, who donated to dancers and musicians, fine lands with hills and young, tall surapunnai trees with dense branches bearing fragrant, bright flowers. He fought with Kari who rode on a horse named Kari.</div>
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In Purananuru poem 158 poet Perunchithiranar praises about Valvil Ori in the poem line 5. The chieftain Valvil Ori ruled Kolli Hills. <br />
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கொல்லி ஆண்ட வல்வில் ஓரியும்</div>
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(Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan. Purananuru 158: 5)</div>
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Valvil Ori ruled Kolli Hills.</div>
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He was known for his rain like generosity (மாரி வண் கொடை). He was the '<span style="text-align: center;">lord of a mountain decorated by clouds and known for his </span><span style="text-align: center;">murderous battles. </span>He is popularly known for his skill in archery and therefore he was named as "Valvil Ori" meaning "great skill in archery." Vanparanar, a Sangam poet eulogises Ori's archery skill in Puranauru poem 158. Ori shot an arrow from his bow. The arrow struck down an elephant, further it went and killed a tiger, dropped a spotted stag, felled a boar and embedded in an iguana in a nearby deep hole.<br />
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வேழம் வீழ்த்த விழுத் தொடைப் பகழி</div>
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பேழ்வாய் உழுவையைப் பெரும் பிறிது உறீஇப்</div>
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புழல் தலை புகர்க் கலை உருட்டி உரல் தலைக்</div>
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கேழல் பன்றி வீழ அயலது</div>
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ஆழல் புற்றத்து உடும்பில் செற்றும்</div>
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வல் வில் வேட்டம் வலம்படுத் திருந்தோன்</div>
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புகழ் சால் சிறப்பின் அம்பு மிகத் திளைக்கும்</div>
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Purananuru 152, Poet Vanparanar sang for Valvil Ori, </div>
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He was widely famed for his skill in killing, the one who shoots with his strong bow. He shot an arrow that felled an elephant, killed a tiger with gaping mouth, dropped a spotted stag with hollow horns, felled a boar with head like mortar, and embedded in a monitor lizard in a nearby deep hole. Who is the archer who shoots with such skill? </div>
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Each day he gave away elephants with adornments. One bard sang vannam compositions on Ori. The danseuse (virali) accompanying the bard played mula drum, ellari drum, akuli drum, pathalai drum, liitle lute, and thoompu as orchestra. Twenty one themes of musical compositions were composed in honour of Valvil Ori (Purananuru 152). <span style="text-align: center;">Ori gifted the bards and their accomplices with water lily flower made in gold </span><span style="text-align: center;">inset with sapphires and fastened to silver threads, wealth, and herds of elephants. The bards who called on Ori were not starving any more and remained without dancing to the sweet music instruments. (Purananuru 153)</span></div>
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Ori was eulogized for his generosity and valour in five of the eight anthologies (Ettuthokai) books such as Akananuru (அகநானுறு), Kuruntokai (குறுந்தோகை), Natrinai (நற்றிணை), Pathitrupathu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) and Purananuru (புறநானுறு) as well as in one of the Ten Idylls (பத்துப்பாட்டு) book - Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை). Sangam poets such as Arisil Kizhar (அரிசில் கிழார்), Ilankiranar (இளங்கீரனார்), Avvaiyar (ஔவையார்), Kapilar (கபிலர்), Kalladanar (கல்லாடனார்), Kurunkozhiyur Kizhar (குறுங்கோழியூர் கிழார்), Thayankannanar (தாயங்கண்ணனார்), Paranar (பரணர்), Perunkunrur Kizhar (பெருங்குன்றூர் கிழார்), Perunchitranar (பெருஞ்சித்திரனார்), Mathurai Alakkar Gnazhalar Makanar Mallanar (மதுரை அளக்கர் ஞாழலார் மகனார் மள்ளனார்) lauded Kolli Hills and Ori. Kapilar, Nattattanaar, Paranar and Perunchitranar eulogise Valvil Ori as the benevolent ruler of Kolli Hills. Kurunkozhiyur Kizhar, Perunkunrur Kizhar and Thayankannanar glorify the Kolli Hills.<br />
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<b>Perum-cheral Irumporai</b><br />
<b><br /></b>Perum Cheral Irumporai (பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை), the Chera monarch was the son of Selvak Kadungo Vaazi Adan (செல்வக்கடுங்கோ வாழி ஆதன்). Eighth decad of Patitrupattu anthology narrates his seventeen years of rule. He ruled his country from Karur, the Chera capital (கருவூர் ஏறிய ஒள்வாட் கோப்பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை). The siege of Karur by the Chola monarch Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan (குலமுற்றத்துத் துஞ்சிய கிள்ளி வளவன்) developed a pitched battle and the Chera won the battle and assumed the title "Ko-Perum-cheral-Irumporai (கோப்பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை). Athiyaman of Tagadur was under the overlordship of Cheras. When Athiyaman failed to accept the authority of Cheras, Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated him in a pitched battle. His invasion, destruction and victory of the city of Tagadur of Athiyaman chief Ezhni is mentioned in Tagadur Yathirai (தகடூர் யாத்திரை), a literary work and Irumporai was known as Tagadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai (தகடூர் எறிந்த பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை).<br />
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<b>Malayaman Tirumudi Kari</b><br />
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Malayaman Tirumudi Kari was one of the autonomous chieftain who ruled Malainadu. Tirukovalur, an ancient town, was his capital. Mullur (now located in Gingee taluk, Villupuram district) was the most important town in his country. முள்ளூர் மன்னன் கழறொடிக் காரி (Akananuru 209). Kotunkal (கொடுங்கல்) was another town of Kari located on the banks of the river Pennai. He was one of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்). He was also one of the contemporary of Valvil Ori. Sirupanatruppadai (lines 91 - 95) and Purananuru poem 158 (lines 6 - 7) eulogise Tirumudi Kari.<br />
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The chieftains were subdued by the empire builders i.e., Muvendars - Chera, Chola and Pandya of ancient Tamilakam and their paramountcy was accepted. Kari was a vassal to the early Chola king Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan. Over the period of time he broke his loyalty to the over-lord and wore a crown and declared himself as Tirumudi Kari. He was a revolting vassal and was one of the most dangerous threats to the crowned king and neighboring vassals.<br />
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<i><u>Kari - Athiyaman Neduman Anci: Encounter</u></i><br />
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Athiyaman Neduman Anci was the chief of the renowned warrior clan of Malavar. Tagadur was his capital (identified with modern Dharmapuri district). Kari waged war on Tagadur against Athiyaman Neduman Anci. It was an attempt fueled by his longtime desire to become an emperor equivalent in power to the Cholas. Kari was defeated and lost Kovalur to Athiyaman. <br />
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<i><u>Kari Defeated Valvil Ori </u></i><br />
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Perum Cheral Irumporai was in agreement with Malayaman Tirumudi Kari and the Chera was expecting Kari's support in defeating Valvil Ori (வல்வில் ஓரி), the chieftain of Kolli hills (கொல்லிமலை). Kari defeated and killed Ori and took Kolli Hills. An Akananuru poem 209 and Natrinai poem 320 register this event.</div>
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முள்ளூர் மன்னன் கழல்தொடிக் காரி</div>
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செல்லா நல்இசை நிறுத்த வல்வில்</div>
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ஓரிக் கொன்று சேரலர்க்கு ஈந்த (Akananuru 209)</div>
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Mullur King Kari with warrior anklets and bracelets, owning bloody spears, gifted to the Cheras after killing Ori of unfading fame and strong bows.<br />
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"ஓரிக்கொன்றவொருபெருந் திருவிற், காரி புக்க நேரார் புலம்போற், கல்லென் றன்றாலூரே" (Natrinai.320 Poet Kapilar)</div>
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The whole town laughs with great uproar. This is like when Kāri killed Ori of ancient victories, and then entered his wide avenue which had no match, and his people raised uproars.</div>
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Kari captured the Kolli Hills and gifted it to Perum Cheral Irumporai (Akananuru poem 209). Perum Cheral Irumporai on his part defeated and killed Athiyaman and retrieved Tirukovalur and handed over to Kari. The capture of Kollik-kuurram (கொல்லிக்கூற்றம்) and Tagadur (தகடூர்) by the Irumporai and the pitched battles are vividly referred in Patirruppattu anthology. From then on Paranar commenced addressing the Chera as "Perum Cheral Irumporai, as the Lord of Kolli hills."(who is also known as Poraiyan) and as "Poraiyan Kolli" (பொறையன் கொல்லி) (<i>ref.</i> Akananuru poem 82 and Kuruntohai poem 89). Kolli-kutavarai belongs to Cheras who won battles ‘வெல்போர் வானவன் கொல்லிக் குடவரை’ (Akananuru 213). Silappatikaram also praises Perum-cheral Irumporai as the Lord of Kolli Hills (‘கொல்லியாண்ட குடவர் கோவே’)(<i>ref. </i>Silappadhikaram Pattumadai Chapter 24-verse 26). This suggests that Silappatikaram could have composed after Cheras captured Kollik-kuurram (கொல்லிக்கூற்றம்). </div>
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கழை விரிந்து எழுதரும் மழை தவழ் நெடுங்கோட்டுக்</div>
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கொல்லிப் பொருந கொடித் தேர்ப் பொறைய!</div>
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Patirruppattu 73;11, Poet Arisil Kilar king Perum Cheral Irumporai</div>
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Lord of the mountain country with banners on your chariots! You are the king of Kolli Mountain where bamboo forests rise high, and clouds spread on tall peaks.</div>
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His successor Cheraman Yanaikat Chey Mantharan Cheral Irumporai (யானைக்கட்சேய் மாந்தரஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை) is being addressed by Poet Kurunkoliyur Kilar as "O killer King! Ruler of Kolli Mountain!" ஓங்கு கொல்லியோர் அடு பொருந (Purananuru 22).</div>
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<b style="text-align: left;">How to get there?</b></div>
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By Bus</div>
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Kolli Hills can be reached by road from Namakkal and Salem. There are less frequent bus services to Kollimalai, Periyasamy Kovil, Arappaleeswarar Kovil, Vilaram, Mekkani Kadu. Belukkurichi is a village located at the foot of the Kolli Hills. After passing through Kalappanaikenpatti, the Ghat road begins at Nadukombai and proceeds via Karavalli to the top of Kolli Hills. There is a check-post at Karavalli. From Karavalli to Semmedu the running would be one hour or more. There are 70 hair-pin bends in this ghat route. At Solakkadu the road gets diverted to two different directions leading to Ettukkai Amman Temple and Arappaleswarar Temple.</div>
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Nearest railway station is Salem, 53 km from Kolli Hills.</div>
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Nearest Airport is at Tiruchirapalli, 90kms from here.</div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
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<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>Kolli Hills http://tamilnadu-favtourism.blogspot.in/2008/11/kolli-hills.html</li>
<li>Kolli Hill Station http://www.tamilnadutourism.org/HillStation/Trekking/KolliHills.html</li>
<li>Kollip-purai: An Inscribed Tamil Coin http://tamilartsacademy.com/articles/article48.xml</li>
<li>Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/</li>
<li>அபூர்வ மூலிகைகள்...சிறுதானியங்கள்...கொல்லிமலை சொல்லும் ரகசியங்கள்! http://www.vikatan.com/news/coverstory/34201.html</li>
<li>கொள்ளை கொள்ளும் கொல்லிமலைச் சாரல். இராஜராஜேஸ்வரி http://moonramkonam.com/kolli-malai-chara/</li>
<li>கொல்லிக் குடவரை https://ta.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88</li>
<li>கொல்லிப்பாவை http://www.gunathamizh.com/2009/11/blog-post_12.html?m=1</li>
<li><span style="text-align: justify;">வல்வில் ஓரியின் கொல்லி மலை https://theekkathir.in/2016/01/25/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%93%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF-%E0%AE%AE/</span></li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com47Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu11.2485139 78.33870660000002310.750319900000001 77.693259600000019 11.7467079 78.984153600000027tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-39743418429511824982017-06-12T05:59:00.001-07:002017-06-12T05:59:55.366-07:00Food in Sangam Literature 5: Food Habits in Five Sangam Landscapes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Honey Harvesting using Coir Ladder</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Palai Landscape</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cow-herd Woman Churning Curd</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Plowman in Marutam Land at Dawn Hours</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fishermen at Shore</td></tr>
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<i><b>"Literature is a fragment of a fragment; of all that ever happened or has been said, but a fraction has been written, and of this but little extant"</b></i> - Goethe (Quoted in The New Dictionary of Thoughts, subject Literature, New York, 1936.</div>
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Tolkappiyam composed by Tolkappiyar is the most ancient work in Tamil grammar. Having three sections, the first two deal with language (linguistics) and the third about the "subject matter of life and literature." Each section has been divided into nine chapters. It is believed that Tolkappiyar lived in the fourth century B.C. There are three translations in English of the entire Tolkappiyam are available.<br />
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‘Subject matter of life and literature’ (Porulatikaram), the third part of the book Tolkappiyam, the ancient Tamil grammar work, deals with the functions, the matter, and the mode of poetics. Pathinenmelkanakku books comprising Eight Anthologies and Ten Idylls are collections of poems composed after Tolkappiyam by various poets. Most of the poets belonged to the single epoch i.e., Sangam period. Tolkappiyam and Pathinenmelkanakku books are collectively referred to as Sangam Literature.<br />
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Tolkappiyam is the primary source for the literary legislation of Sangam literature. It provides two fold classification for Sangam Tamil poems i.e., Love poems (Akam Poems) and all other poems that are not love poems (Puram Poems). Tinai or strand is the pattern forming a unity within a larger collection of Sangam poems. It is the unifying principles in Akam literary theory. Personal life in Akam poems is classified into seven tinais or strands:<br />
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Chart: Akaporul - Divisions (Tamil)</div>
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<img alt="porul.gif (450×275)" height="244" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-DCHCtS7PKJY/UGM-yXIV8kI/AAAAAAAABZE/_SIls9JL4YQ/s400/porul.gif" width="400" /></div>
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கைக்கிளை முதலாப் பெருந்திணை இறுவாய்</div>
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முற்படக் கிளந்த எழு திணை என்ப.</div>
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(Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 1)</div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">They are from one side love (kaikkilai) to mismatched love (perunthinai). </span><br />
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அவற்றுள்,</div>
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நடுவண் ஐந்திணை நடுவணது ஒழிய</div>
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படு திரை வையம் பாத்திய பண்பே. </div>
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(Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 3)</div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Among the middle five tinais or strands of life style (</span>ஐந்திணை) <span style="text-align: justify;">are habits of five lands classified: 1. Kurinj, the hilly tract; 2. Mullai, the meadow of forest tracts; 3. Palai, the arid tract by seasons in the above two tracts; 4. Marutam, the cultivate land on river bed; and 5. Neital, the littoral tract on sea bed.</span></div>
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முதல் கரு உரிப்பொருள் என்ற மூன்றே</div>
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நுவலும் காலை முறை சிறந்தனவே</div>
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பாடலுள் பயின்றவை நாடும் காலை. </div>
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(Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 3)</div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">The matter and subjects found in poetry are discerned in three structures; 1 (Mutarporul - </span><span style="text-align: justify;">முதற்பொருள்</span><span style="text-align: justify;">) the primary things (landscape and seasons), 2 (Karupporul - </span><span style="text-align: justify;">கருப்பொருள்</span><span style="text-align: justify;">) the living things in the tract and 3 (Uripporul - </span><span style="text-align: justify;">உரிப்பொருள்</span><span style="text-align: justify;">) the personal behavior of the persons belonging to the tract. </span></div>
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முதல் எனப்படுவது நிலம் பொழுது இரண்டின்</div>
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இயல்பு என மொழிப இயல்பு உணர்ந்தோரே. </div>
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(Tolkappiyam Porulatikaram 4)</div>
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Aspects of landscapes and time of the day are (Mutarporul), the linguistic discerns.</div>
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Akam poems are concerned with landscape, the seasons, the hours appropriate to each aspect and emotion of love. </div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Table: Season and Time of the Day</span><br />
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<o:p> 1</o:p></div>
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<o:p> Kurinj</o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-align: justify;">Spring (இளவேனில்) Mid Apr - Mid Jun;</span></div>
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<o:p> Yamam (யாமம்)</o:p></div>
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<o:p> 2</o:p></div>
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<o:p> Palai</o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-align: justify;">Summer (முதுவேனில்) Mid Jun - Mid Aug,</span></div>
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<o:p> Noon (நண்பகல்)</o:p></div>
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<o:p> 3</o:p></div>
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<o:p> Mullai</o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="text-align: justify;">Monsoon (கார்) Mid Aug - Mid Oct,</span></div>
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<o:p> Evening (மாலை) </o:p></div>
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<o:p> 4</o:p></div>
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<o:p> Marutam</o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-align: justify;">Autumn (குளிர்) Mid Oct - Mid Dec,</span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 178.6pt;" valign="top" width="238"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<o:p> Dawn (வைகறை, விடியல்)</o:p></div>
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<o:p> 5</o:p></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 73.7pt;" valign="top" width="98"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<o:p> Neital</o:p></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 178.6pt;" valign="top" width="238"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<o:p> </o:p><span style="text-align: justify;">Prevernal (பின்பனி) Mid Feb - Mid Apr;</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 178.6pt;" valign="top" width="238"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<o:p> Afternoon (ஏற்பாடு, பிற்பகல்)</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
'Karupporul' (கருப்பொருள்) mentions fourteen aspects in relation with each tinai and landscape. These fourteen aspects are nothing but the concrete representations of each landscape i.e., 1. god or goddess, 2. inhabitant (Primary), 3. inhabitant (secondary), 4. birds, 5. beasts, 6. village, 7. waterbodies, 8. flower, 9. trees, 10. food, 11. drum, 12. lute, 13.musical note, 14. their varying occupation. Food is indispensable for human survival. It is unique to each tinai or strand and forms part of relevant tinai or strand..<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
Table: Karupporul<br />
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; text-align: center;">
<tbody>
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<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>1 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>God or Goddess </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Method of worship</o:p></div>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>2 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Primary </o:p> Inhabitant</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Primary class people or inhabitant</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>3</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> </o:p>Secondary Inhabitant </div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Secondary class people or inhabitant</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>4 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Birds</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Unique bird of the tract </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>5 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Beasts or Animals</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Animal meant for domestication or wild animals </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>6 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Villages </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Name and type of villages unique to the tract or landscape</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>7 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Water-bodies </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Typical water-bodies unique to the tract or landscape</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>8 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Flowers</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Unique flower. names of the flower </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>9 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Trees</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Landscapes and the names of the trees</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>10 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> <span style="color: red;"><b>Food</b></span></o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>Agriculture status </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>11</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Drum</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Percussion instrument</o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>12 </o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 4.0cm;" valign="top" width="151"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p> Lute</o:p></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: text1; mso-border-right-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 252.3pt;" valign="top" width="336"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>String instrument </o:p></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 22.7pt;" valign="top" width="30"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<o:p>13 </o:p></div>
</td>
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<o:p>Musical Note </o:p></div>
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<o:p>Unique Musical Note </o:p></div>
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<o:p>14 </o:p></div>
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<o:p>Varying Occupation </o:p></div>
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<o:p>Technical skills and typical produces </o:p></div>
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Uripporul (உரிப்பொருள்) is the personal behavior of the persons belonging to the tract. Five personal behavior of the lovers belonging to the tract: 1. Kurinji - Lovers union; 2. Palai - Separation; 3. Mullai - Endurance; 4. Marutam - Sulking; 5. Neital - Longing.<br />
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<b>Geographical Distribution of Sangam Tamils</b><br />
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Anthropo-geography is the concept put forward by Fritz Graebner (1877-1934), a German anthropologist, geographer and ethnologist best known for his development of the theory of "Kulturkreis," or "culture circle." Anthropogeography is 'a branch of anthropology dealing with the geographical distribution of humankind and the relationship between human beings and their environment.' Tamilakam refers to the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people. The geography of food is a field of human geography. Spatial variations in food production and consumption practices have been noted for thousands of years.</div>
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The first crop grown by Sangam Tamil civilization was millet. Rice was also produced around this time or little later. Agriculture produced more food, which helped the population to grow variety of food grains, pulses, vegetables, spices, dairy as well as meat and poultry unique to the five different geographical landscapes. The landscape of Tamilakam with its mountains, pastoral slopes, river beds and coastal shores formed the basis for the distribution Tamils. The five geographical landscapes also stand unique and forms the basis for the division of poetry on geographical regions: Kurinji (mountain) poetry; Mullai (pastoral land) poetry; Marutam (wet-land) poetry; and Neital (seaside) poetry. There was abundant variety in the landscape offered to the Tamil poet for study and contemplation. The physiographical lay-out of Tamilakam, its flora and fauna, its hills and valleys, rivers and lakes, its deserts and sandy beaches, formed the basis for a considerable portion of Tamil poetic convention.</div>
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<i>Pattuppattu: Atruppadai Poems</i></div>
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Atruppadai poems, the unique Sangam literary form, where in one bard or the minstrel (பாணர்), who is returning with bounteous gifts from a Maecenas or Patron (usually the king / chieftain). In all arruppadai poems the bard or the minstrel gained immense opportunity to detail the nature of 'Sangam' terrain', (its beauty, fertility, and food of the specific terrain) and its territory to be traversed. There is an emphasis on the tedious journey to reach the fort palace of the Maecenas. Atruppadai poems praise kings, valor, wars, generosity, loyalty, and gratitude. In Pattuppattu there are five Atruppadai poems i.e., Tirumurugatruppadai (திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை), Porunaratruppadai (பொருநராற்றுப்படை), Perumpanatruppadai (பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை), Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை) and Malaipadukadam (மலைபடுகடாம்).. Among the five atruppadai poems, one of them differs from the others i.e., Tirumurugatruppadai, which directs devotees not to a Maecenas but to God Murugan. <span style="text-align: left;">Kamil Zvlebil, well known Tamil scholar consider that these Atruppadai poems composed around 3rd century A.D. These longer poems eloquently depict the most advanced civilization that prevailed in ancient Tamilakam during Tamil Sangam period.</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><br />
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Food is the perennial theme in the remaining four Atruppadai poems. The poems describes many facets of life in different communities in five different geographical terrains and the hospitality extended by them to the minstrel. They also provide graphic description of the food served by people to the minstrel. The guiding bard praises about the benevolence of the king or chieftain to the travelling bard. In an interesting manner food features an important place in the context of the guiding bard, travelling bard and the patron in Atruppadai poems.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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<b>Food in Kurinji Terrain</b><br />
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<img alt="c03113kb.jpg (350×495)" src="http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/c031/c0311/images/c03113kb.jpg" height="400" width="282" /></div>
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Kurinji Tinai corresponds to mountainous terrain and adjoining lands. Kurinji or Neelakurinji flower (Strobilanthes kunthiana), which blooms once in 12 years, is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Kurinji Tinai. Lord Muruga was worshiped by the native people. The Kurinji forests are known for dense jungle dotted with waterfalls and springs. Verpan and Kodichi were the primary inhabitants and Kuravan and Kurathi were secondary inhabitants. Tiger, bear, elephant, parrots and peacocks were native animals and birds. Lovers of this land made their 'union' during 'yamam' (midnight), in winter season without minding about the dangers of the land. The hunters engaged in honey harvesting from tall mountains using rope ladder. Jack fruit, bamboo, teak sandalwood trees occupied their terrain. Kurinji land people cultivated foxtail millet, bamboo rice and tubers. Their villages were known as Sirukudi (சிறுகுடி) , and Kurichi (குறிச்சி). The native music note of the land was Kurinji Note (குறிஞ்சிப் பண்) and percussion instrument was Thontakam (drum) and the stringed musical instrument was Kurunji Lute (குறிஞ்சி யாழ்).<br />
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<i><u>Food Habits:</u></i> </div>
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கேளா மன்னர் கடி புலம் புக்கு <br />
நாள் ஆ தந்து நறவு நொடை தொலைச்சி<br />
இல் அடு கள் இன் தோப்பி பருகி<br />
மல்லல் மன்றத்து மதவிடை கெண்டி<br />
மடிவாய்த் தண்ணுமை நடுவண் சிலைப்பச்<br />
சிலை நவில் எறுழ்த்தோள் ஓச்சி வலன் வளையூஉப் <br />
பகல் மகிழ் தூங்கும் தூங்கா இருக்கை (140 - 146)</div>
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(Perumpanatruppadai 140 - 146) Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</div>
<span style="font-family: inherit;">In the kurinchi region the thieves who steal cattle sell them to buy sweet rice liquor </span>that is made at home <span style="font-family: inherit;">and eat the meat of sturdy goats enjoy it along with meat of sturdy goats. They dance </span>and celebrate to the beat of thannumai drums. It is a place where they don’t sleep.<br />
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மான விறல் வேள் வயிரியம் எனினே</div>
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நும் இல் போல நில்லாது புக்கு</div>
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கிழவிர் போலக் கேளாது கெழீஇ</div>
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சேட் புலம்பு அகல இனிய கூறி</div>
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பரூஉக்குறை பொழிந்த நெய்க்கண் வேவையொடு</div>
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குரூஉக்கண் இறடிப் பொம்மல் பெறுகுவிர்</div>
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(Malaipadukadam 164 - 169 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</div>
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Hospitality in a Village on the Path:When the bard reaches a village on the mountain slopes, he is advised to tell the villagers that they are the respected musicians of the honored king Nannan, whose victories in battles cannot be handled by enemies. They may become friendly with the people there without asking, as though they are their relatives. They will definitely utter sweet words to them who have come from a distant place. They will receive from them dishes with big pieces of meat roasted in ghee along with colorful millet rice.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">முள்ளம்பன்றி porcupine</td></tr>
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வேய்ப் பெயல் விளையுள் தேக்கட் தேறல்</div>
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குறைவு இன்று பருகி நறவு மகிழ்ந்து வைகறை</div>
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பழஞ் செருக்கு உற்ற நும் அனந்தல் தீர</div>
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அருவி தந்த பழம் சிதை வெண் காழ்</div>
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வருவிசை தவிர்த்த கடமான் கொழுங்குறை</div>
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முளவுமாத் தொலைச்சிய பைந்நிணப் பிளவை</div>
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பிணவுநாய் முடிக்கிய தடியொடு விரைஇ</div>
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வெண்புடைக் கொண்ட துய்த்தலைப் பழனின்</div>
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இன் புளிக் கலந்து மா மோர் ஆக</div>
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கழை வளர் நெல்லின் அரி உலை ஊழ்த்து</div>
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வழை அமல் சாரல் கமழத் துழைஇ</div>
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நறுமலர் அணிந்த நாறு இரு முச்சிக்</div>
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குறமகள் ஆக்கிய வால் அவிழ் வல்சி</div>
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(Malaipadukadam 171 - 183 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</div>
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Gifts from Nannan’s Mountains: Along with food, they will give you sweet liquor aged in bamboo pipes which you can drink without limits. For their hangover to go, in the morning, they will serve them scattered seeds of fruits brought down by waterfalls; big pieces of meat of bison killed ruining arrows, chopped up pieces of fatty meat of porcupines mixed with fuzzy-topped, sweet tamarind and buttermilk, seeds growing on bamboo added to the boiling liquid. White rice cooked by a mountain woman and their fragrances spreading all over the mountains with surapunnai trees. They, along with their children, will be greatly hospitable in all the houses, and prevent them from leaving.</div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">வரை சேர் வகுந்தின் கானத்துப் படினே</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">கழுதில் சேணோன் ஏவொடு போகி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">இழுதின் அன்ன வால் நிணம் செருக்கி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">நிறப் புண் கூர்ந்த நிலம் தின் மருப்பின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">நெறிக் கெடக் கிடந்த இரும்பிணர் எருத்தின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">இருள் துணிந்தன்ன ஏனம் காணின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">முளி கழை இழைந்த காடுபடு தீயின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">நளி புகை கமழாது இறாயினிர் மிசைந்து</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">(Malaipadukadam 242 - 249 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman) </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">Seek Protection in the Caves at Night: When the bards go on the mountain path in the forest, they will definitely see a dead boar with a big rough neck, with wounds on its chest oozing white fat that appears like butter, lying there, dark like cut up darkness, its tusks ruined by digging, killed by a forest guard from a high platform with arrows. Roast it in the dry bamboo fire which burns without much smoke, remove the hair and eat it. Relax and drink the clear water from the faultless, beautiful, sapphire-colored, fresh spring. Carry the excess meat in heavy bundles. At night enter a mountain cave and treat it like it is their home".</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">தடியும் கிழங்கும் தண்டினர் தரீஇ</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">ஓம்புநர் அல்லது உடற்றுநர் இல்லை</span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">(Malaipadukadam 425 - 426 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman) </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">Warriors will help: If the bards see warriors with sharp arrows and curved bows, who are within calling distance, let them tell the warriors that they are going to see king Nannan Venman, they will give feed you forcefully with abundant meat and tubers. They are ones who will protect them, not hurt them. Proceed with their guidance. Such is the nature of the forest.</span><br />
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<b>Food in Palai Terrain</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><img alt="paalai-kotravai1.jpg (512×749)" height="400" src="https://dosa365.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/paalai-kotravai1.jpg" width="273" /></span></div>
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Palai Tinai corresponds to parched wasteland or desert terrain land. Palai flower (Wrightia antidysenterica), is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Palai Tinai. Goddess Kotravai was worshiped by the native people. Dry wells and stagnated water were the sources for water. Vitalai, Kalai and Meeli were the primary inhabitants and Eyinar, Eyirriyar, Maravar and Marathiyar were the secondary inhabitants. Old elephant, Tiger, and wolf were the native animals. Dove, kite and eagle were the birds. Common trees found in Palai terrain included Uzhinjai (உழிஞை), Palai (பாலை), Omai (ஓமை) and Iruppai (இருப்பை). Their food was robbed from wayfarers. Lovers of this land suffer due to separation during noon in summer season. The hero has undertaken dangerous journey. Eyinars, ancient aboriginal tribe, and Maravars were engaged in hunting and robbery. Cactus occupied their terrain. Their villages were known as Kurumbu (குறும்பு), and Parantalai (பறந்தலை). The native music note of the land was Palai Note (பாலைப் பண்). They have used Aralaiparai (ஆறலைப் பறை) and Sooraikotparai (சூறைகோட் பறை) drums and Palai Lute (பாலை யாழ்).<br />
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<img alt="1200px-Indian_Bison_(Gaur)_1_by_N._A._Naseer.jpg (1200×812)" height="270" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Indian_Bison_%28Gaur%29_1_by_N._A._Naseer.jpg/1200px-Indian_Bison_%28Gaur%29_1_by_N._A._Naseer.jpg" style="cursor: move; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></div>
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ஆமான் Indian bison</div>
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<u><i>Food Habits</i></u></div>
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எயிற்றியர் அட்ட இன் புளி வெஞ்சோறு<br />
தேமா மேனி சில் வளை ஆயமொடு<br />
ஆமான் சூட்டின் அமைவரப் பெறுகுவிர்<br />
(Sirupanatruppadai 175 - 177, Poet Nallur Nathathanar, king Oyman Nalliyakodan)<br />
On the way to Velur and Hospitality in the Wasteland: Women <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">of the Eyitriyar race who stay in huts in the waste land will be hospitable to the bards and serve</span> rice and dishes cooked with sweet tamarind sauce and meat of forest cattle (bison). ஆமான் – jungle cow, சூட்டின் – with cooked wild cow’s meat,<br />
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“நுண்புல்அடக்கிய வெண்பல் எயிற்றியர்</div>
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பார்வையாத்த பறைதாள் விளவின்</div>
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நீழல் முன்றில் நிலவுரல் பெய்து</div>
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குறுங்காழ் உலக்கை ஓச்சி நெடும் கிணற்று</div>
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வல்லூற்று உவரி தோண்டித் தொல்லை</div>
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முரவு வாய்க்குழிசி முரி அடுப்பேற்றி</div>
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வாராது அட்ட வாடூன் புழுக்கல்”<br />
(Perumpanatruppadai 94 - 100 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)<br />
Food given by Women wasteland hunters (எயிற்றியர்): In a front yard, in the shade of a woodapple tree whose trunk has been reduced by a deer tied to it. Women of the wasteland hunters, with white teeth, pour the grain into an ural set in the ground, and pound with their short ulakkai, draw brackish water from a well, and cook it along with dried white meat, in an old pot with a ruined mouth rim, on a broken stove.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">உடும்பு Iguana</td></tr>
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“கொடுவில் எயினர் குறும்பில் சேப்பின்</div>
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களர் வளர் ஈந்தின் காழ் கண்டன்</div>
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சுவல் விளை நெல்லின் செவ்வ்விழ்ச் சொன்றி</div>
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ஞமலி தந்த மனவுச்சூல் உடும்பின்</div>
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வறைகால் யாத்த்து வயின்தொறும் பெறுகுவீர்” <br />
(Perumpanatruppadai 129 - 133, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</div>
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At the fort of the forest dwellers in many homes they will serve red rice grown from the paddy growing in the highland, that look like dates from eenthu palm trees along with poriyal (srir fried) dishes made of fresh iguana with eggs looking like conch conch shells.</div>
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman';">Food in Mullai Tinai</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><img alt="c03113mb.jpg (338×465)" src="http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/c031/c0311/images/c03113mb.jpg" /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mullai Tinai corresponds to pastoral terrain and used for grazing livestock. Jasmine (Mullai) flower (</span>Jasminum auriculatum) is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Mullai Tinai. Lord Mayon was worshiped by the native people. The Mullai pastoral land is known for shepherds herding livestock around open grazing land. The land is blessed with wild rivers. Kurumporai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குறும்பொறை நாடன்), Kizhathi (கிழத்தி), Thondral Manaivi (தோன்றல் மனைவி) were the primary inhabitants and Idaiyar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இடையர்), Idaichiyar (இடைச்சியர்), Ayar (ஆயர்), Aychiyar (ஆய்ச்சியர்), Kovalar (கோவலர்) and Pothuvar (பொதுவர்) were the secondary inhabitants.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Deer and rabbit were the native animals and fowl was their bird. Their trees included Kondrai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கொன்றை), Kaya (காயா) and Kuruntham (குருந்தம்). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They cultivated kodo millet and little millet. Lovers of this land (heroine) expresses grief due to 'separation' during 'evening', in late summer season. They lived in villages like Padi (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பாடி), Cheri (சேரி) and Palli (பள்ளி). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The herdsmen engaged in pastoral and agricultural occupations and Aychiyar engaged in fetching milk, buttermilk, curd, butter and ghee. The native music note of the land were Mullai Note (முல்லைப் பண்) and Saadhari (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சாதாரி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) and the drums used were Erangot drum (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஏறங்கோட் பறை) and Erukot drum (ஏறுகோட் பறை) and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">lute used was Mullai Lute (முல்லை யாழ்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><i><u>Food Habits</u></i></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">"இருங்கிளை ஞெண்டின் சிறுபார்ப்பன்ன</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பசுந்திணை மூரல் பாலொடும் பெருகுவீர்"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 167 - 168, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the residences of Cattle Herders bards along with their relatives will receive fresh millet that looks like baby crabs, cooked and served with milk.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">"நெடுங்குரற் பூளைப் பூவி னன்ன</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குறுந்தாள் வரகின் குறளவிழ்ச் சொன்றிப்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புகரிணர் வேங்கை வீகண் டன்ன</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வவரை வான்புழுக் கட்டிப் பயில்வுற்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">றின்சுவை மூரற் பெறுவிர்"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 192 - 196, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the huts of Mullai land people living in small villages the bards will receive a sweet tasting meal made with small millet, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">செவ்வீ வேங்கைப் பூவின் அன்ன</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வேய் கொள் அரிசி மிதவை சொரிந்த</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சுவல் விளை நெல்லின் அவரை அம்புளிங்கூழ்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அற்கு இடை உழந்த நும் வருத்தம் வீட</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அகலுள் ஆங்கண் கழி மிடைந்து இயற்றிய</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புல்வேய் குரம்பைக் குடிதொறும் பெறுகுவிர்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பொன் அறைந்தன்ன நுண் நேர் அரிசி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வெண் எறிந்து இயற்றிய மாக் கண் அமலை</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தண்ணென் நுண் இழுது உள்ளீடு ஆக</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அசையினிர் சேப்பின் அல்கலும் பெறுகுவிர்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விசையம் கொழித்த பூழி அன்ன</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உண்ணுநர்த் தடுத்த நுண் இடி நுவணை</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நொய்ம் மர விறகின் ஞெகிழி மாட்டி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 434 - 446 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hospitality of Villages with Huts: At night in the villages with huts the bards will be served food cooked with seeds of bamboo that are beautiful like vengai flowers, and rice grown on high grounds along with beautiful tamarind gravy with avarai beans. In all the villages with huts built with poles and thatched with grass, the bards will receive daily, huge balls of rice made with tiny, perfect rice, like tiny gold pieces, butter, and meat of white goats. If you stay there and rest, every day you will be given dishes made with fine millet flour mixed with sifted sugar powder.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Food in Marutam Tinai</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><img alt="c03113rb.jpg (338×466)" src="http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/c031/c0311/images/c03113rb.jpg" height="400" width="290" /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Marutam Tinai corresponds to crop land (terrain) and adjoining agricultural lands. Marutam flower (</span>Lagerstroemia speciosa) is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Marutam Tinai. Lord Vendan (a.k.a Indra) was worshiped by the native people. The Marutam landscape is known for agricultural land dotted with ponds and lakes. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ooran (ஊரான்), Makizhnan (மகிழ்நன்), Kizhathi (கிழத்தி) and Manaivi (மனைவி) were the primary inhabitants and .Ulavar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உழவர்), Ulathiyar (உழத்தியர்), Kataiyar (கடையர்), Kataisiyar (கடைசியர்) and Kalamar (களமர்) were the secondary inhabitants. Buffalo (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எருமை) and Otter (நீர்நாய்) were the animals and swan (அன்னம்), Andril (அன்றில்), Vandanam (வண்டானம்), Magandril (மகன்றில்), Stork (நாரை), Kampul (கம்புள்) and Thara (தாரா) were the birds. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Lovers of this land made their 'elopement' shortly before sunrise (vaigarai), in late spring season. The farmers engaged in cultivation activities in the field. Kanji (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">காஞ்சி), Vanji (வஞ்சி), and Marutam (மருதம்) trees </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">occupied the terrain. Flowers included lotus (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தாமரை) and Sengaluneer flower (செங்கழுநீர்ப் பூ). They lived in villages i.e., Perur (பேரூர்) and Moothoor (மூதூர்). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Marutam land people cultivated paddy, lentils, vegetables and fruits. The native music note of the land was Marutam Note (மருதப் பண்).They have used Nellari drum (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நெல்லரி பறை) and Manamulavu drum (மணமுழவு) and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Martham Lute (மருத யாழ்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><u><i>Food Habits</i></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இருங்கா உலக்கை இரும்பு முகம் தேய்த்த</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவைப்பு மாண் அரிசி அமலை வெண்சோறு</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கவைத்தாள் அலவன் கலவையொடு பெறுகுவீர்.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Sirupanatruppadai 193 - 195, Poet Nallur Nathathanar, king Oyman Nalliyakodan)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the agricultural tracts they will give:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Prosperity of Amur and hospitality of farm women: The younger sister of the farmer will serve cooked white rice balls, from rice finely pounded with an iron pestle whose ends have been blunted, served with split-legged crabs</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கவைத்தாள் – split-legged, அலவன் – crabs</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">split-legged crabs broth கவைத்தாள் அலவன் கலவை </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“நெடுங்குரல் பூளைப்பூவின் அன்ன</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குறுந்தாள் வரகின் குறளவிழ்ச் சொன்றி</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புகர் இணர் வேங்கை வீசுண்டன்ன</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவரை வான் புழுக்கட்டிப் பயில்வுற்று</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இன்சுவை மூரல் பெறுகுவிர்” </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 192 - 196 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">You (bards) will receive a sweet tasting meal made with small millet, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தேன் நெய்யொடு கிழங்கு மாறியோர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மீன் நெய்யொடு நறவு மறுகவும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தீங் கரும்போடு அவல் வகுத்தோர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மான் குறையொடு மது மறுகவும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Porunaratruppadai 214 - 217, Poet Mudathamakkaniyar. king Cholan Karikalan)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Barter in Poompukar: People barter honey, ghee and yams for fish oil and toddy. Those who sell sweet sugarcane and portions of flattened rice, barter for deer meat and wine.</span><br />
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கண்பு மலி பழனம் கமழத் துழைஇ</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வலையோர் தந்த இருஞ்சுவல் வாளை</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நிலையோர் இட்ட நெடுநாண் தூண்டில்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பிடிக்கை அன்ன செங்கண் வராஅல்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துடிக்கண் அன்ன குறையொடு விரைஇ</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பகன்றைக் கண்ணிப் பழையர் மகளிர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஞெண்டு ஆடு செறுவில் தராய்க்கண் வைத்த</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விலங்கல் அன்ன போர்முதல் தொலைஇ</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வளம் செய் வினைஞர் வல்சி நல்க</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துளங்கு தசும்பு வாக்கிய பசும் பொதித் தேறல்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இளங்கதிர் ஞாயிற்றுக் களங்கள் தொறும் பெறுகுவிர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 454 - 464 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hospitality in the Agricultural Land:In the Agricultural land fishermen with nets enter ponds with kanpu grass with fragrant flowers, and catch valai fish with big necks. Some stand on the shore and catch with their rods with strings, red-eyed varal fish shaped like trunks of female elephants. Fishermen's wives wearing pakandrai flowers will cook pieces of fish that look like eyes of drums. Along with fish they will serve them rice from mountain-like haystacks kept on mounds near fields. The bards will receive in the morning in every field liquor made with paddy sprouts. </span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Banded+snakehead.jpg (1200×630)" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTzt8Gph4ji6AN1EVS8XFYwrctEFsOQNTtv-lRUUnjX0ptofsL1gQHptoSTHezFNjeYKP6lAPhbzKLok0to6XukLUUZIZnJCvecdeL0S9qrBLXPKbbekdtz67vZ6CffvnEnw56Y0vBm6k/w1200-h630-p-k-nu/Banded+snakehead.jpg" height="210" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Red-eyed varal fish விரால் மீ<span style="font-size: 12.8px;">ன் (Channa striata) </span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">shaped like trunks</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="ribbon_l.jpg (581×389)" src="http://www.qlmp.com.my/images/product_pic/fresh_choice/ribbon_l.jpg" height="267" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">வாளை மீன் (Trichiurus haumela)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="oetrhDhdfjhge_bigger.jpg (592×279)" src="http://ksmartstatic.sify.com/cmf-1.0.0/appflow/bawarchi.com/Image/oetrhDhdfjhge_bigger.jpg" height="188" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Red-eyed varal fish slices in broth</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">முள் அரித்து இயற்றிய வெள் அரி வெண் சோறு</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வண்டு படக் கமழும் தேம்பாய் கண்ணித்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">திண்தேர் நன்னற்கும் அயினி சான்ம் எனக்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கண்டோர் மருள கடும்புடன் அருந்தி</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 465 - 468 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hospitality in the Agricultural Land:In the Agricultural land, during morning hours, in every field the bards will receive cooked white rice removed of chaff, which deserves to be served to Nannan owning sturdy chariots, along with liquor made with paddy sprouts.</span></span></div>
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<i style="text-align: justify;"><u>Food Habits in Wealthy Home (செல்வர்களின் உணவு)</u></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தொல்பசி அறியாத் துளங்கா இருக்கை</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மல்லல் பேர் ஊர் மடியின் மடியா</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வினைஞர் தந்த வெண்ணெல் வல்சி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மனைவாழ் அளகின் வாட்டொடும் பெறுகுவிர்</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 253 - 256 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Food that you will get in the Marutham land: In the houses situated in the prosperous town of the Marutham land, the minstrel advises the bard that if he stays there he will receive food cooked with white rice brought by workers who do not tire, along with dishes cooked with house residing hens.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தண்டலை உழவர் தனி மனைச் சேப்பின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தாழ்கோட் பலவின் சூழ் சுளைப் பெரும்பழம்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வீழ் இல் தாழைக் குழவித் தீம்நீர்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கவை முலை இரும்பிடிக் கவுள் மருப்பு ஏய்க்கும்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குலை முதிர் வாழைக் கூனி வெண்பழம்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">திரள் அரைப் பெண்ணை நுங்கொடு பிறவும்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தீம்பல் தாரம் முனையின் சேம்பின்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">முளைப்புற முதிர் கிழங்கு ஆர்குவிர்</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 355 - 362 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hospitality in the Groves: In the fragrant grove where the houses of farmers located in individual compounds, woven with the dried fronds of coconut trees, the bards will receive jack-fruits that grow low on the trees, sweet water of tender coconuts, curved, white bananas from bunches that look like the tusks on the cheeks of dark, female elephants with forked udders, along with tender nungu (ice fruit) of palmyra palms, and when you tire, you will receive the mature tubers of chēmpu that grow from sprouts.</span></div>
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Food in Neithal Tinai</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Neithal Tinai corresponds to seashore and adjoining terrains. Blue Water Lily Blue Nelumbo or Kuvalai or Kazhuneer or Neithal flower (Nymphae odorata) is mentioned as the native flower and hence the name Neithal Tinai. Lord Kadalon (a.k.a Varunan) was worshiped by the native people. The Neithal terrain is known for seashore and adjoining coastal land dotted with sand well (உவர்நீர்க் கேணி or கவர்நீர் (மணற் கிணற்று நீர்). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Serppan (சேர்ப்பன்), Pulamban (புலம்பன்), Parathi (பரத்தி) and Nuzhaichi (நுழைச்சி) were the primary inhabitants and Nulaiyar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நுளையர்), Nulaichiyar (நுளைச்சியர்), Parathar (பரதர்), Parathiyar (பரத்தியர்), Alavar (அளவர்) and Alathiyar (அளத்தியர்) were the secondary inhabitants. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Crocodile, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">shark (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சுறா மீன்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and Kara fish</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (கரா மீன்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> were native animal and fish. Sea-crow (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கடற்காகம்), swan (அன்னம்) and Andril (அன்றில்) were the birds. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Lovers of this land suffered due to 'longest separation' during sunset, in early summer season. They lived in coastal villages i.e., Pakkam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பாக்கம்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and pattinam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பட்டினம்)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">. The fishermen engaged in fishing from ocean using fishing net. Womenfolk barter fish and salt and get paddy, meat and wine. Salting and drying the fish took place to preserve seafood. They constructed fishing boats and skilled in surfing the waves. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Kandal (கண்டல்), Punnai (புன்னை), Gnazhal (ஞாழல்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">trees occupied their terrain. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The native music note of the land was Sevvazhi Note (செவ்வழிப் பண்) and the drum used was Navay drum (நாவாய்ப் பறை) and the stringed musical instrument was Vilari Lute (விளரி யாழ்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><i><u>Food Habits</u></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கரும் புகைச் செந்தீ மாட்டிப் பெருந்தோள்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மதி ஏக்கறூஉம் மாசு அறு திருமுகத்து</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நுதி வேல் நோக்கின் நுளை மகள் அரித்த</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பழம் படு தேறல் பரதவர் மடுப்ப</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கிளை மலர்ப் படப்பைக் கிடங்கில் கோமான்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தளை அவிழ் தெரியல் தகையோற் பாடி</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அறல் குழல் பாணி தூங்கியவரொடு</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வறல் குழல் சூட்டின் வயின்வயின் பெறுகுவீர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Sirupanatruppadai 156 - 163, Sirupanatruppadai Poet Nallur Nathathanar, king Oyman Nalliyakodan)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Seashore town of Eyirpattinam and hospitality of Fishermen: The minstrel advises the bard about the hospitality at the house of fishermen: If the go to Kidangil town with groves full of flower clusters and sing the praises of the noble king adorned with fresh bud garlands, with perfect rhythm and beats as their viralis dance, they will give him fried kulal fish cooked over akhil drift wood. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வேறு புலம் படர்ந்த ஏறுடை இனத்த</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வளை ஆன் தீம்பால் மிளைசூழ் கோவலர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வளையோர் உவப்ப தருவனர் சொரிதலின்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பலம் பெறு நசையொடு பதிவயின் தீர்ந்த நும்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புலம்பு சேண் அகல புதுவிர் ஆகுவிர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 408 - 412 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Nannan’s Enemies:In the land where the bards are going, there are enemies of Nannan who tremble at the thought of him. If the bards tell them that they are going to see</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">king Nannan, a great donor who does not keep anything for himself, they will only benefit them like the wealthy, fine, ancient towns of Nannan. Bards! rest there in a relaxed manner before leaving. In the forest bangle-wearing females of cattle herders, will give you sweet milk of cows as white as conch shells. The bards, who have set out with desire will be relieve of their sorrow, and become new person.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கல்லென கடத்திடைக் கடலின் இரைக்கும்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பல்யாட்டு இனிநிரை எல்லினிர் புகினே</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பாலும் மிதவையும் பண்ணாது பெறுகுவிர்</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 415 - 417 Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar king Nannan Venman)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Nannan’s Enemies:In the land where the bards are going, there are enemies of Nannan who tremble at the thought of him. If the bards reach by night the noisy place where sounds in the forest are like those from the ocean, with many herds of sheep and goat mixed together like the different colors of rice obtained through bartering, you will be given milk and food that they cooked for themselves</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சோறு வாக்கிய கொழுங்கஞ்சி</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">யாறு போலப் பரந்து ஒழுகி</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Pattinappalai 44 - 45 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar king Cholan Karikalan)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Public Kitchens in Kaviripoompattinam: In the public kitchens of Kaviripoompattinam, with tightly fitting doors bearing Chola Tiger emblem, When large quantity of rice is cooked in these kitchens and drained, thick water, drained from cooked rice poured on streets, ran like rivers, creating slush and mud.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கருந்தொழில் கலி மாக்கள்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கடல் இறவின் சூடு தின்றும்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வயல் ஆமை புழுக்கு உண்டும்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Pattinappalai 63 - 65 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar king Cholan Karikalan) </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Martial Art Field in Kaviripoompattinam: In the Martial Art field strong men show off their strengths. They gather with their many relatives and hordes of people from their clan. Warriors eat roasted shrimp and steamed field tortoises. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மீன் தடிந்து விடக்கு அறுத்து</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊன் பொரிக்கும் ஒலி முன்றில்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மணல் குவைஇ மலர் சிதறிப்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பலர் புகு மனைப் பலிப் புதவின்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நறவு நொடைக் கொடியோடு </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Pattinappalai 176-180 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar king Cholan Karikalan) </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Flags Hoisted in the Liquor Shops: In the liquor shops of Kaviripoompattinam, sizzling sounds of frying pieces of fish and meat are heard in the front yards. Sand is heaped where rituals are performed with strewn flowers. In these shops frequented by many, liquor is sold, and there are many flags at the entrance.</span></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman'; text-align: justify;">Food in Brahmin Settlement:</b></div>
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மறை காப்பாளர் உறைபதிச் சேப்பின்<br />
பெருநல் வானத்து வடவயின் விளங்கும்<br />
சிறுமீன் புரையும் கற்பின் நறுநுதல்<br />
வளைக்கை மகடூஉ வயின்அறிந்து அட்ட<br />
சுடர்க்கடை பறவைப் பெயர்ப்படு வத்தம்<br />
சேதா நறுமோர் வெண்ணெயின் மாதுளத்து<br />
உருப்புற பசுங்காய்ப் போழொடு கறி கலந்து<br />
கஞ்சக நறுமுறி அளைஇ பைந்துணர்<br />
நெடுமரக் கொக்கின் நறுவடி விதிர்த்த<br />
தகைமாண் காடியின் வகைபடப் பெறுகுவிர்<br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai </span>301-310, <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar, king Thondaiman Ilanthiraiyan)</span></div>
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What you will get in the brahmin Settlement: When they get to the Brahmin settlements at sunset, where fat calves are tied to the small poles of pavilions, floors are smeared with fresh dung, rituals are performed in fine houses where dogs and domestic fowl are not allowed, parrots with curved beaks are taught to recite the Vedas, women with fragrant brows and bangled arms, will serve well cooked rice that bears the name of a bird along with fresh pomegranate cooked with butter made from the milk of a red skinned cows, and fresh curry leaves and black pepper. They will also give fragrant pickles made with tender green mangoes (Vadu mango pickle).<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="p39a.jpg (400×320)" src="http://img.vikatan.com/aval_kitchen/2016/01/njzlzm/images/p39a.jpg" height="320" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pomegranate cooked wirh butter& pepper</td></tr>
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<b>Food in the Palace of Chieftain / King</b><br />
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“கா எரியூட்டிய கவர் கணைத் தூணிப்</div>
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பூ விரி கச்சைப் புகழோன் தன்முன்,</div>
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பனிவரை மார்பன், பயந்த நுண் பொருள்</div>
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பனுவலின் வழாஅப் பல் வேறு அடிசில்,</div>
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வாள் நிற விசும்பின் கோள்மீன் சூழ்ந்த</div>
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இளங் கதிர் ஞாயிறு எள்ளும் தோற்றத்து</div>
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விளங்கு பொற்கலத்தில் விரும்புவன பேணி,</div>
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ஆனா விருப்பின், தான் நின்று ஊட்டி, (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை 238-245)</div>
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And when they reach the king’s palace he will give: </div>
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"He will give you toddy strong that stupefies like poison of snakes, and in golden plates that much surpass the morning sun that lights the sky, he will serve many dishes suited to your taste that are prepared according to the rules found in the treatise* that a hero wrote whose chest was as broad as the snowy mount” *The treatise refers to the work of Bhima of Mahabharata who lived for a year disguised as a cook.</div>
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“இழையணி வனப்பின் இன்னகை மகளிர்</div>
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போக்கு இல்பொலங்கலம் நிறையப் பல்கால்</div>
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வாக்குபு தரத்தர வருத்தம்வீட</div>
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ஆர உண்டுபேரஞர் போக்கிச்</div>
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செருக்கொடு நின்ற காலை”<br />
(Porunaratruppadai 85-89, Poet Mudathamakkaniyar. king Cholan Karikalan)<br />
In the halls bejeweled, smiling, comely maids poured out from spotless golden vessels full like cheering rain much stupefying drink repeatedly. For my great sorrow to vanish, I drank a lot, and stood up with joy.<br />
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"பதனறிந்து </div>
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“துராஅய் துற்றிய துருவை அம்புழுக்கின்</div>
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கராஅரை வேவைப் பருகு எனத் தண்டி</div>
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காழின் சுட்ட கோழ்ஊன் கொழுங்குறை</div>
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ஊழின் ஊழின் வாய்வெய்து ஒற்றி</div>
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அவை அவை முனிகுவம் எனினே சுவைய</div>
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வேறுபல் உருவின் விரகுதந்து இரீஇ”<br />
(Porunaratruppadai 103-108, Poet Mudathamakkaniyar. king Cholan Karikalan)<br />
Food served by the king Karikalvalavan: Knowing the time to eat, he urged me to eat cooked, thick thigh meat of sheep that were fed arukam grass twisted to ropes, and fatty, big pieces of meat roasted on iron rods. I cooled the hot meat pieces, moving them from one side of my mouth to the other.<br />
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“முரவை போகிய முரியா அரிசி<br />
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விரல்என நிமிர்ந்த நிரல் அமைபுழுக்கல்</div>
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பரல்வறைக் கருனை காடியின் மிதப்ப</div>
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அயின்ற காலை”<br />
(Porunaratruppadai 113-116, Poet Mudathamakkaniyar. king Cholan Karikalan)<br />
One day, he gave me boiled rice that looked like jasmine buds, all the grains of same size, unbroken, with no streaks, and long like fingers, along with stir-fried dishes, staying with me sweetly.<br />
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ஊண் அவர்களுக்கு வெறுத்துப்போய்விட்டதாம்.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கொல்லை உழுகொழு ஏய்ப்பப், பல்லே</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>எல்லையும் இரவும் ஊன் தின்று மழுங்கி,</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>உயிர்ப்பிடம் பெறாஅது, ஊண் முனிந்து </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Porunaratruppadai</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> 117-119, Poet Mudathamakkaniyar. king Cholan Karikalan</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">)</span></div>
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Filled to my neck with food I swallowed continuously day and night and my teeth became blunted like a plow that plowed a field. There was no time to breathe. I hated food.<br />
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வல்லோன் அட்ட பல் ஊன் கொழும் குறை - பெரும் 472</div>
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Malaipadukadam (check)"At Nannan's palace you will receive fresh meat and white rice with no limits. You will enjoy this throughout your stay, as much as you want. He will give you perfect clothing, and tall chariots that run like flowing water, large herds of cattle, and horses with tufts decorated with gold jewels. He fills the hands of poets who have nothing with his large hands".</div>
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சேறும் நாற்றமும் பலவின் சுளையும்<br />
வேறு படக் கவினிய தேம் மாங்கனியும்<br />
பல்வேறு உருவின் காயும் பழனும்<br />
கொண்டல் வளர்ப்பக் கொடி விடுபு கவினி<br />
மென்பிணி அவிழ்ந்த குறு முறி அடகும்<br />
அமிர்து இயன்றன்ன தீம்சேற்றுக் கடிகையும்<br />
புகழ்படப் பண்ணிய பேர் ஊன் சோறும்<br />
கீழ் செல வீழ்ந்த கிழங்கொடு பிறவும்<br />
இன்சோறு தருநர் பல்வயின் நுகர<br />
(Mathuraikanchi 527 -535 Poet Mangudi Maruthanar (Mangudi Kilar) king Pandiyan king Neduncheliyan)<br />
Types of Food in Mathurai city:In Mathurai city food is served to many, with sweet rice, segments of jackfruits with fragrance, beautiful, sweet mangoes, vegetables and fruits in many different shapes that grow on lovely vines with delicate sprouts that have opened into leaves, nurtured by the rains, sugar cubes that are like nectar, famed rice that is cooked with meat, tubers that go down into the earth and others.<br />
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நல்வரி இறாஅல் புரையும் மெல் அடை<br />
அயிர் உருப்பு உற்ற ஆடு அமை விசயம்<br />
கவவொடு பிடித்த வகை அமை மோதகம்<br />
தீஞ்சேற்றுக் கூவியர் தூங்குவனர் உறங்க<br />
(Mathuraikanchi 624 -627 Poet Mangudi Maruthanar (Mangudi Kilar) king Pandiyan king Neduncheliyan)<br />
The Second Phase of Night the Mathurai City: In the Mathurai city, the night market is getting closed. The shop keepers remove pole props and close the big shops where prices are called out. The vendors who sell delicate adais that are like honeycombs with fine lines and mothakams, that are made on the palms pressing fingers, with fillings with sugar syrup, also go to sleep,</div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Fritz Graebner Encyclopedia Britanica</li>
<li>Fritz Graebner Wikipedia</li>
<li>Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/</li>
<li>ஐந்திணைகளில் அமைந்துள்ள பதினான்கு வகையான வேறுபட்ட கருப்பொருள்கள்</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">தமிழ் மக்களின் உணவு புலால் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">http://www.vinavu.com/2015/06/25/flourishing-meating-culture-in-tamil-history/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">சங்ககால சமையல் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">http://mazhimegam.blogspot.in/2014/01/1_30.html</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சங்ககாலத்து உணவும் உடையும் - 1 மா.இராசமாணிக்கனார் http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=5</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சங்ககாலத்து உணவும் உடையும் - 2 மா.இராசமாணிக்கனார் </span><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">http://www.varalaaru.com/design/article.aspx?ArticleID=5</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பண்டைய கால தமிழர்களின் உணவு முறை!</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> http://suvanappiriyan.blogspot.in/2014/08/blog-post_7.html</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பண்டைய தமிழர் உணவுகள்</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> http://vairamani-lakshmi.blogspot.in/2011/08/blog-post_8263.html</span></li>
</ol>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-83933014596627487092017-06-09T08:50:00.001-07:002017-06-09T08:50:35.036-07:00Food in Sangam Literature 4: Meat in Sangam Tamil Cuisine<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>What is Meat?</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">What is meat? </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Up until 13th century 'meat' referred to all food. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">It may have derived from the Old English word for food. mete </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">"food, item of food" (paired with drink),. Proto Germanic word 'mati' means 'food.' The present narrower meaning of meat is </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the flesh of an animal that is eaten as food. We have seen that early human have </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">hunted and killed animals for food. The meaning of the term meat is becoming broader as there are narrower terms to specify </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">for the flesh of herbivorous grazing animals: 1. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat from cows: beef; 2. Meat from calf: veal; 3. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat from pigs: pork; 4. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat from sheep: mutton; and 5. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat from deer: venison</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Dressing and Cutting of Animal Carcass: Subsequent to exsanguination, the animal carcass is dressed. People will remove the head, feet, hide, excess fat, viscera and offal and retain only bones and edible muscle. Except sheep, the cattle and pig carcasses will be split in half along the mid ventral axis and divided into two pieces. Then the animal carcass will be further cut into nine pieces: the neck, two front quarters, the loin and rib sections of the spine, two sides of ribs, and two hind quarters. Subsequent to this either the bone will be removed or leave the bone intact to cut bone-in-steak and roasts. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/MIN_Rungis_viandes_de_boucherie_veau.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="546" data-original-width="800" height="272" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/MIN_Rungis_viandes_de_boucherie_veau.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat comprise </span>muscle, fat, bone and connective tissue. Concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre differentiates meat into 'red' and 'white.' Exposure of myoglobin to environment (oxygen) develops reddish oxymyoglobin. So lean meat, the edible and nutritive portion, appear red due to richness of myoglobin. However richness of myglobin or redness depends on species, animal age, and fibre types. Lean meat comprise narrow muscle fibres, </div>
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Example beef (cherry red), mutton (light pink to red), Pork (grey to pink), veal (light to red), venison (dark red). White meat comprise more broad fibres. Example poultry meat (white). Scientifically edible meat is predominantly <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the muscle tissue of an animal. The biochemical composition of most animal muscle roughly comprise </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">75% water, 20% protein, and 2.5 - 5.0% </span>intramuscular fat, 1,2% carbohydrates, and 2.3% <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">other soluble non-protein substances i.e., </span>nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals. </div>
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<b>Connotation of Meat</b><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Culturally the word meat do have different ideas to different people about what constitutes meat. Some consider it in a restricted sense to the flesh of mammals. For some other birds do not fall under this purview. However number of people </span>will consider poultry as meat, but may further qualify it as "poultry meat" i.e., flesh of "domesticated birds" and not any birds hunted from the jungle and hunted birds are known as "game birds." Whether the term meat also include fish? Why not fish be called as meat?Some vegetarians eat small fish varieties, since they do not consume living organisms.</div>
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The argument put forward by meat eaters states that humans are omnivores. The early humans that consumed most meat were the Neanderthals, who lived in Europe many thousand years ago. The pre-historic human ancestors ate meat, first raw then cooked. Eating meat was essential for human evolution. Eating meat made us human. They are anatomically suited to eat both animals and plants. It is not in human nature to eat an exclusively plant-based diet. Meat has played a key role in human diets, along with starch or carbohydrates provided by fruits, tubers and grains. Therefore, they should be allowed to eat meat. However human can manage without meat and can obtain protein from milk or, legumes.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Ethics of Eating Meat</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vegetarianism is professed as a way of life </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">in a number of religions that originated in ancient India (Vedic Brahminism, Jainism and Buddhism).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">. However only a minority have adopted vegetarianism as an expression of their faith. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Jainism vegetarianism is mandatory for everybody, In Vedic Brahminism and Buddhism it is professed in their religious scriptures. Relatively, within Judaism, Christianity and Islam vegetarian diet is not professed in the religious canons. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Quaran expressively forbids carcasses from animals which die naturally, blood, carcasses of pigs and porcine animals and animals dedicated to other than Allah (dedicated gods of other religions) that are haram as opposed to halal. Sikhism disallows meat of slowly slaughtered animals. Sikhism also disallows eating any meat.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">On 26th May 2017, Government of India imposed a nationwide ban on the sale and purchase of cattle for slaughter. Subsequently the Madras High Court stepped in to suspend the order for four weeks. It further asked government to give reasons as to why its order should not be scrapped. Following this the High Court of Rajasthan recommended that cow should be declared as 'National Animal of India.' The court also suggested that cow slaughter should be viewed as a crime and punishment could be three years imprisonment to a life term. The issue has snowballed into a national disputation and contention. Protests and rallies are taking place everywhere in India. The cow slaughter issue should really have been between </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">animal rights enthusiasts as well as Hindu ethicists (cow worshipers) and beef eaters </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and not between Hindus and Muslims. Beef eating should "have been a matter of choice, not a case vegetarian values being forcibly stuffed down the throat of the people. What the people should not in any way interest the government." </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Of course, s</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">pread of Jainism and Buddhism in Tamil Nadu during post Sangam period </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">religion played vital role in non-violence and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">placed emphasis on vegetarianism, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The ancient and medieval Vedic religious texts do not explicitly prohibit eating animal meat, but they do strongly recommend ahimsa or non-violence against all life forms including animals. Saint Tiruvalluvar, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a Tamil poet </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">who lived in 1st century B.C., had composed Tirukkural in Tamil language. This ancient text encouraged moderate diet as the virtuous life style. On non-violence and compassion 'towards animals the saint composed a whole chapter 'Spurning of meat (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புலால் மறுத்தல்)' and the couplets from 251 to 260 condemns killing of animal for eating meat.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Couplet 251 states that </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> "how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures." </span><br />
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman';">Sangam Period: Meat Culinary</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">There are abundant references to consumption of fish, mutton, beef, venison, meat in general </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">in Sangam literature. In fact during Sangam period there was not </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">much differentiation between vegetarian and non-vegetarian food. There was no religious restrictions on food habits. Sangam poets have used s</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">everal words in the Sangam literature to denote meat of different varieties. Some of the words used are - Iraichi - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">இறைச்சி, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Un - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">ஊன் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(meat), Ulthal - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">ஊழ்த்தல், </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kurai - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குறை,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Thasai - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">தசை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (steak), Thadi - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">தடி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Thu - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">து</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pulal - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புலால்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (dried meat with smell / dried salt-fish), Pun - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">புன், Purali - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">புரளி, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ninam - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நிணம்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (fat), </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vidakkudai - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விடக்குடை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, Muri - </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">முரி </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(removed flesh). M</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">an has every right to </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">raise and kill animals. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Sangam Tamill society the great majority of people ate </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">beef, mutton, pork, fish, venison,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">or meat of any animal or bird </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">when they can get it. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">There was not any ethical objection.</span><br />
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<i><u>Cooking of Meat</u></i></div>
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They have cooked meats of Eel (விலங்கு மீன்), Murrel fish (Channa striata) (வரால் மீன்), Mackerel fish (<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அயிலை மீன்), T</span>word fish (வாளை மீன்), Thark (சுறா மீன்), Tortoise (ஆமைக்கறி), crab (நண்டு இறைச்சி), Fowl (காட்டுக்கோழி இறைச்சி), Quail (காடை), Partridge (கவுதாரி), rams (செம்மறி ஆடு இறைச்சி), Veal (பசுங்கன்று <span style="text-align: center;">இ</span>றைச்சி), Ox (எருது <span style="text-align: center;">இ</span>றைச்சி), Bison (<span style="text-align: center;">கடமான்</span><span style="text-align: center;">இ</span>றைச்சி), porcupine (முள்ளம்பன்றி இறைச்சி), pork (பன்றியிறைச்சி), iguana (உடும்பு இறைச்சி), rabbit (முயல் இறைச்சி), venison (மான் இறைச்சி) etc., These broths were mixed with white rice for their main course.<br />
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அயிலை துழந்த அம் புளிச் சொரிந்து</div>
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கொழு மீன் தடியொடு குறுமகள் கொடுக்கும்</div>
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(Akananuru 60: 4 - 6)</div>
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Young girl, wearing bright bangles, brings food, white rice she got from bartering salt, mixed with a sauce of ayirai fish cooked in sweet tamarind sauce</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மோட்டு இரு வராஅல் கோட்டுமீன் கொழும் குறை (Purananuru 399: 5-6)</span></div>
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fatty big pieces of horned (shark)fish, large pieces of murrel (varal) fish</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கவைத் தாள் அலவன் கலவையொடு பெறுகுவிர் (Sirupanatruppadai 193 - 195)</span></div>
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(Receive juicy Crab gravy)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">... ... ... அரித்த விளையல் வெங்கள்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">யாமைப் புழுக்கின் காமம் வீட ஆரா</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஆரல் கொழுஞ் சூடு அம் கவுள் அடாஅ</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 212: 3 Poet Pisiranthaiyar sang for Koperuncholan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">laborers drink filtered, strong, aged liquor and eat cooked </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">tortoises without limits, their cheeks bulging </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">with roasted eels,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மான் அதள் பெய்த உணங்கு தினை வல்சி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கானக் கோழியொடு இதல் கவர்ந்து உண்டென</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 320: 11, Poet: Poet: Veerai Veliyanar,) </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">She catches loud forest fowls and quails that come to eat the dried food set on a deer hide and cooks on fragrant sandalwood.</span><br />
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புள் ஊன் தின்ற புலவு நாறு கய வாய்</div>
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(Purananuru 324: 2, Poet: Poet: Alathur Kilar,) </div>
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wild cat cubs, white, soft mouths smelling of flesh of birds they ate</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வருவிசை தவிர்த்த கடமான் கொழுங்குறை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">முளவுமாத் தொலைச்சிய பைந்நிணப் பிளவை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பிணவுநாய் முடிக்கிய தடியொடு விரைஇ</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வெண்புடைக் கொண்ட துய்த்தலைப் பழனின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இன் புளிக் கலந்து மா மோர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Malaipadukadam 175 -179, Poet: Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar Sang on King Nannan Venman,) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">big pieces of meat of bison killed ruining arrows, chopped up pieces of fatty meat of porcupines mixed with fuzzy-topped, sweet tamarind and buttermilk,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எயினர் தந்த எய்ம்மான் எறிதசைப்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பைஞ்ஞிணம் பெருத்த பசு வெள் அமலை</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 177: 13 - 14, Poet: Poet Āvur Mulankilar sang for Mallikilan Kariyathi,) </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">unlimited food is served in frond bowls made from large palmyra trees to those who come, white balls of rice is served with huge pieces of fresh, fatty porcupine meat brought by the hunters from the western land with dense forests</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கான் உறை வாழ்க்கைக் கத நாய் வேட்டுவன்</span></div>
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மான் தசை சொரிந்த வட்டியும்</div>
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(Purananuru 33: 1-2 Poet Kovur Kilar sang to Cholan Nalankilli)</div>
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A forest hunter with fierce dogs presents venison</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தான் உயிர் செகுத்த மான் நிணப் புழுக்கோடு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 152: 26 Poet Vanparanar sang for Valvil Ori)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> he gave us boiled fatty meat of deer that been killed in hunt</span></div>
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கேழல் பன்றி வீழ அயலது</div>
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ஆழல் புற்றத்து உடும்பில் செற்றும்</div>
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(Purananuru 152: 4-5 Poet Vanparanar sang for Valvil Ori)</div>
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felled a boar with head like mortar, and embedded in a monitor iguana in a nearby deep hole</div>
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செம் புற்று ஈயலின் இன் அளைப் புளித்து</div>
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மென் தினை யாணர்த்து நந்தும் கொல்லோ</div>
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(Purananuru 119: 3 - 4)</div>
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Termites from red mounds were cooked</div>
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in curries with tamarind and sweet buttermilk,</div>
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and wealth from soft millet was abundant.</div>
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<i><u>Beef Eating</u></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கொழுப்பு ஆ தின்ற கூர்ம் படை மழவர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Akananūru 129, Kudavayil Keerathanar)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">warriors with sharp weapons, wearing slippers eat fatty cows in palai desert terrains</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தோகைத் தூவித் தொடைத்தார் மழவர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நாகு ஆ வீழ்த்துத் திற்றி தின்ற</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Akananūru 249: 12-13, Nakkeeranar)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> slaying and eating flesh of young cows and the ground reeks with flesh,</span></div>
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வயவாள் எறிந்து வில்லின் நீக்கி</div>
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பயம் நிரை தழீஇய கடுங்கண் மழவர்</div>
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அம்பு சேண் படுத்து வன் புலத்து உய்த்தெனத்</div>
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தெய்வம் சேர்ந்த பராரை வேம்பில்</div>
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கொழுப்பு ஆ எறிந்து குருதி தூஉய்ப்</div>
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புலவுப் புழுக்குண்ட வான் கண் அகல் அறைக்</div>
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(Akananūru 309: 1-5, Karuvur Kanthapillai Sathanar,) </div>
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Not thinking that the huge forest is a place where killing with powerful swords and chasing with arrows shot afar from bows of harsh warriors who seize herds of cattle that yield benefits, who reach the neem tree in the forest where gods reside, kill a fat cow and throw its blood, eat a flesh meal in the palai (desert) vast land</div>
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களிறு பெறு வல்சிப் பாணன் கையதை</div>
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வள் உயிர்த் தண்ணுமை போல</div>
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(Natrinai 310: 9, Paranar,) </div>
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hollow like an empty thannumai drum</div>
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with sharp tones in the hands of a bard</div>
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Tannumai is a percussion instrument and the same was in use by Mazhavars of Marutam land. Tannumai player constructed this instrument from the leather of calf. For this he obtained the leather by killing the calf and even ate the flesh. As a cattle protector, he used play the drum to drive away the cattle lifters (Aalai kalvar) and to warn them. The irony is he killed the calf and ate its flesh. Whether he is the cattle protector or cattle killer and beef eater?</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">... ... நல் ஏறு இரண்டு உடன் மடுத்து</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வென்றதன் பச்சை சீவாது போர்த்த</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">திண் பிணி முரசம் ... ... ...</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 288: 9, Poet: Kalathalaiyar,) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A drum roars in the middle of the battlefield, covered</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">with unfinished leather of a victor after a fight among</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">two noble bulls, their horns with tips streaked with mud,</span></div>
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... ... நல் ஏறு இரண்டு உடன் மடுத்து</div>
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வென்றதன் பச்சை சீவாது போர்த்த</div>
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திண் பிணி முரசம் ... ... ...</div>
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(Purananuru 288: 9, Poet: Kalathalaiyar,) </div>
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A drum roars in the middle of the battlefield, covered</div>
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with unfinished leather. For this two Bulls were selected and made them to fight. Of which, the winner's skin was used for the drum</div>
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<b>1. Un (ஊன்)</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Un </span>(ஊன்) <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">means flesh,muscle </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(தசை)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, meat animal food; body; fat; </span>pieces of meat</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Un (ஊண்) means food in common and includes entire meal. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊன் துவை means meat paste in a semi-liquid colloidal suspension or aggregation. Meat, beans, spices are made into paste. </span>Pastes are often highly spicy or aromatic. <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The paste is mixed with white rice and consumed by Sangam Tamils. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“ஊனும் ஊணும் முனையின் இனிதெனப்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பாலிற் பெய்தவும் பாகிற் கொண்டவும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அளவுபு கலந்து மெல்லிது பருகி</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விருந்துஉறுத்து ஆற்ற இருந்தனெ மாக” </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puranānuru 381, Poet Puranthinai Nannakanar sang for Karumpanur Kilan) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">When we were tired of eating meat (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊன்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and food (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊண்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">along with sugar syrup mixed with rice in </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">perfect proportions, enjoying his hospitality </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and having no hunger, we said to him, “Lord,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">we are leaving for our country with festivals!”</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தன்னூன் பெருக்கற்குத் தான்பிறிது ஊனுண்பான்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எங்ஙனம் ஆளும் அருள். (Tirukural:251)<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">How can the wont of 'kindly grace' to him be known, Who other creatures' flesh consumes to feed his own?.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊனுடுத்தி யொன்பதுவாசல்வைத்து (தேவா. 29, 1)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊனமுதம் விருப்புற்று (திருவாச. 15, 3)</span></div>
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<b>2. குறை</b><br />
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Kurai (<span style="text-align: center;">குறை) means roasts or size for slicing into more than one portion. After the animal carcass is dressed, it will be </span><span style="text-align: center;">suspended on a hook. </span><span style="text-align: center;">After this the carcass will be </span><span style="text-align: center;">further reduced </span>into nine pieces: the neck, two front quarters, the loin and rib sections of the spine, two sides of ribs, and two hind quarters. <span style="text-align: center;">The Tamil term is applicable to mutton, venison, beef, large fish, etc..</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Mutton stalls hanging large pieces of flesh. குறை</span></td></tr>
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மோட்டு இரு வராஅல் கோட்டுமீன் கொழும் குறை</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 399: 5-6, Aiyur Mudavanar sang for Thaman Thondrikon</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet and his group are proceeding to see Killivalavan. On their way farmworkers offered food. Woman cooked in a bright pot with fermented gruel, with vallai leaves from fields, and with fatty big pieces of horned fish and large pieces of varal fish.</span></div>
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நெருப்பு சினம் தணிந்த நிணம் தயங்கு கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 125:2, Poet Vadama Vannakkan Perunchathanar sang to Malaiyaman Thirumudi Kari, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Poet would like to eat large chunks of meat layered with fat that calmed hot fire, looking like cotton thread spun by women!</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இழுதின் அன்ன வால் நிண கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 150 9, Poet Vanparanar sang for Kandeera Koperu Nalli</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The poet and his group meet a hunter carrying a strong bow. Before his young men who were lost in the path could catch up with him, he kindled a fire where rapidly he roasted bit pieces of fatty meat that looked like butter and gave it all to me, and said, “Eat this, along with your large family.”</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வாடூன் கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 328: 9 Poet Unknown</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet guides the bard to the patron. The patron will gives you dry pieces of meat cooked together with grains from plucked spears, and curds poured into a milk pot with ilanthai fruits, cooked with ghee, stirred with a ladle and served with white rice, and you are happy there…</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>காயம் கனிந்த கண் அகன் கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 364: 5-6, Poet: Kookai Koliyar </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">kill a black male goat and roast it in red flame </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">with spices and serve big pieces of fatty meat</span><br />
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துடி கண் கொழும் குறை நொடுத்து உண்டு ஆடி</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akannuru 196, Paranar, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A fat varal fish that is caught during the day is cut into thick pieces that look like the eyes of thudi drums</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அரி நிறக் கொழுங்குறை வௌவினர் மாந்தி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akannuru 236: 3 Paranar, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ponds brimming with clear water from which bright colored fish are caught and eaten by reapers of white paddy, the remains thrown away in the land nearby,</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>செம் தீ அணங்கிய செழு நிண கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akannuru 237:9, Thayankannanar, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Uranthai city where people share food, thick fatty meat cooked in hot flame with delicate millet served in bowls with sweet syrup made from sugarcane in the fields, and fine milk poured on fresh flattened rice</span><br />
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கானவன் எய்த முளவு_மான் கொழும் குறை</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Natrinai 85:8, Nalvilakkanar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A mountain woman with honey-fragrant hair shares fatty porcupine meat that her husband killed and brought home, along with yams,with everybody in their lovely, small village</span></div>
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<b>3. Soodu (சூடு)</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Soodu (சூடு) means broiling = நெருப்பில் வாட்டுதல். Broiling is a great way to cook tender cuts of meat, such as c. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hunters kill the animals and cut the flesh into </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Broiling is a great way to cook tender cuts of meat, such as steaks, chops and patties. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They will lit the fire and broil the meat and eat. In Tamil it is known as Soodu (சூடு).</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>குறுமுயல் கொழுஞ் சூடு கிழித்த ஒக்கலொடு </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 34: 11, Poet Alathūur Kilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet praises the king Killivalavan, who gives with an open mind abundant wealth to bards who eat huge balls of rich, cooked rice mixed with honey and millet grown in dry fields, that are as large as the eggs of pigeons, with cooked rabbit meat.</span><br />
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விடை வீழ்த்துச் சூடு கிழிப்ப – புறம் 366/17</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 366, Poet: Kothamanar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Killing a male goat and tearing off its roasted meat, serving it on leaves to those who are hungry along with boiled rice</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>குறுமுயலின் குழை சூட்டொடு</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 395: 3, Poet Mathurai Nakkeerar sang for Cholanattu Pidavur Kilarmakan Perunchathan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pidavur lies east to Uranthai. Perunchathan is the Lord. In Pidavur, plowmen from agricultural land eat many dishes made with cooked pieces of small rabbits and long vālai fish pieces, along with old rice, drink filtered liquor made from cooked rice, </span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கொழுந்தடிய சூடு என்கோ </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 395: 15, Poet Mankudi Kilar sang to Vattrattru Eliniyathan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Eliniyāthan reigns Vāttrāttru. The king gives the bards fragrant rice with ghee and fatty pieces of rabbit meat.</span></div>
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<b>4. Thadi (தடி)</b></div>
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A thick piece of meat (beef steak or lamb chops or fish steak). Murrel fish (Varal) is very thick and long. Ribbon Fish (Valai fish). If the head and tail are removed the remaining part can be called as 'Fish Thadi.' (<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மீன் தடி).</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Murrel Fish steak is cooked in a Broth (வராஅல் பெரும் தடி மிளிர்வை)</span></td></tr>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பெருநல் பல்கூட்டு எருமை உழவ!</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கண்படை பெறாது தண் புலர் விடியல்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கருங்கண் வராஅல் பெரும் தடி மிளிர்வையொடு</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>புகர்வை அரிசிப் பொம்மல் பெருஞ்சோறு</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கவர்படு கையை கழும மாந்தி </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Natrinai 60: 2-6, Thoongaleriyaar, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The farmer, who wakes up at the crack of dawn without much sleep and eat large cooked pieces of black-eyed varāl fish with big balls of fine rice.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: pre; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கொடுங் குழை பெய்த செழுஞ் செவி பேதை</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சிறு தாழ் செறித்த மெல் விரல் சேப்ப</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வாளை ஈர்ந் தடி வல்லிதின் வகைஇ </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புகை உண்டு அமர்த்த கண்ணள் தகை பெறப்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பிறை நுதல் பொறித்த சிறு நுண் பல் வியர்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அம் துகில் தலையில் துடையினள் ... </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Natrinai 120: 3-8, Mankudi Kilar, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The naive woman with curved earrings </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">on her lovely ears and small rings on her </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">delicate fingers that become red cutting </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">vālai fish to pieces, cooks when I arrive </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">as smoke from the stove attacks her calm</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">eyes, and small beads of sweat spread on </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">her pretty, crescent-moon forehead which</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">she wipes with her pretty sari</span><br />
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விரைந்து வாய் வழுக்கிய கொழும் கண் ஊன் தடி</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 193:9, Mamoolanar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the wasteland vultures fly their nests with meat pieces to feed their young. The meat pieces with fast slip from their mouths, becoming food for old foxes with intense hunger</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>நிணம்பொதி விழுத் தடி நெருப்பின் வைத்து எடுத்து</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 265:13, Mamoolanar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> What the heroine said to her friend. In the harsh wasteland wayside bandits with mighty curved bows go to the mountain, kill a fine bull with sweet sounds,and eat its fine white meat embedded with fat, roasting it on a flame, </span></div>
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<b>5. Tharam (தாரம்)</b></div>
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Tharam (தாரம்)<b style="font-weight: normal;"> </b>means providing to the guests the food stuff that is hard to get. In small village grove people will offer best food even to the strangers who drops their huts. The hungry bard would enjoy even the is simple. The people living were known for their hospitality. They provided big feast: <span style="text-align: center; white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>தாழ்கோள் பலவின் சூழ்சுளைப் பெரும்பழம்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வீழ் இல் தாழை குழவித் தீநீர்க்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கவைமுலை இரும்பிடிக் கவுள்மருப்பு ஏய்க்கும்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>குலைமுதிர் வாழைக் கூனி வெண்பழம்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>திரள் அரைப் பெண்ணை நுங்கொடு பிறவும்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>தீம் பல் தாரம் </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perumpanatruppadai 356 - 361</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hospitality in the Groves: The bards are advised to go to the fragrant grove where the houses of farmers are woven with the dried fronds of coconut trees with thick fronds. There the bards will receive receive jackfruits, sweet water of tender coconuts, curved, white bananas from bunches, along with tender nungu (ice-fruit) of palmyra palms, and when you tire, you will receive the mature tubers of chēmpu that grow from sprouts. </span><br />
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<b>6. Thirri (திற்றி)</b></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-weight: normal; white-space: pre;">Thirri </span>(திற்றி) means tender flesh when cooked in open fire turns very soft for purposes of chewing. In this method of cooking no utensil is used and often cooking takes place in the woods. Cattle herds are kept by shepherds within protected fence. Cattle lifters armed with bow would raid their herds and even kill them. They share the raided cattle among themselves. They would kill the calf and roast the veil in open fire near a rock shelter.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இரவுக் குறும்பு அலற நூறி நிரை பகுத்து</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இரும் கல் முடுக்கர்த் திற்றி கெண்டும்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கொலைவில் ஆடவர்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: pre; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 97: 4 - 6, Poet Mamoolanar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the wasteland murderous men with bows who kill those in the forest forts as they scream, steal their cattle, divide them among themselves, and eat meat near junction with the big boulders,</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மழவர் எனப்படும் மறவர் மரநிழலில் இளமையான பசுங்கன்றை அடித்து, அதன் தசையை அரிந்துச் சுட்டுத் தின்றார்கள் என்பதை வேறோர் அகப்பாடல் குறிப்பிடுகிறது.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பல்பூங்கானத்து அல்குநிழல் அசைஇத்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>தோகைத் தூவித் தொடைத் தார் மழவர்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>நாகு ஆ வீழ்த்துத் திற்றி தின்ற </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 249: 11 - 13, Poet Nakkeeranar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hero has gone through mountains where bamboo is hidden, bandits (Mazhavar or Maravar) wear garlands made with peacock feathers and rest in groves with many flowers and little shade, slaying and eating flesh</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">of young cows and the ground reeks with flesh. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Thirri means edible meat.</span></div>
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<b>7. Thuzhavai (துழவை)</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Hunter woman in a village on the mountain slope adds fruit seeds, bison meat pieces, porcupine chops, sweet tamarind, buttermilk and bamboo seeds to the boiling liquid. She cooks the food by constantly stirring. Malaipadukadam picturizes this scene in detail.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>அருவி தந்த பழம்சிதை வெண்காழ்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வருவிசை தவிர்த்த கடமான் கொழுங்குறை</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>முளவுமாத் தொலைச்சிய பைந்நிணப் பிளவை</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பிணவுநாய் முடுக்கிய தடியொடு விரைஇ</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வெண்புடைக் கொண்ட துய்த்தலைப் பழனின்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இன்புளிக் கலந்து மாமோராக</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கழைவளர் நெல்லின் அரிஉலை ஊழ்த்து</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வழைஅமை சாரல் கமழத் துழைஇ</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>நறுமலர் அணிந்த நாறு இரு முச்சிக்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>குறமகள் ஆக்கிய வால் அவிழ் வல்சி<br />
– மலைபடுகடாம் 174 – 183</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Gifts from Nannan’s Mountains: Woman in a village on the mountain slopes will serve you scattered seeds of fruits brought down by waterfalls, big pieces of meat of bison killed ruining arrows, chopped up pieces of fatty meat of porcupines mixed with fuzzy-topped, sweet tamarind and buttermilk, seeds growing on bamboo added to the boiling liquid, and white rice cooked by a mountain woman</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>8. Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்) means braising. That which braised. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Few cuts of meat i.e., the shoulder meat cuts of </span>deer, lamb, cow and pig, are hard and require much chewing and the meat comprise lot of connective tissue. When exposed to steam heat these connective tissues melt. The method of cooking is known as braising. Application of steam heat breaks down collage and unwind protein strands. In Sangam poems use the word Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்). </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">ஊன் புழுக்கு</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left;"> </span>Braising PC: The Reluctant Gourmet </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உவலை கண்ணியர் ஊன் புழுக்கு அயரும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 159:10, Poet Amur Kavuthaman Sathevanar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Warriors with leaf garlands, who recover cows in harsh battles from wasteland bandits who seized many herds, celebrate their victory, beating loud thudi drums and dancing to their beats and cooking (braising) meat dishes on the abandoned stoves.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><span style="white-space: pre;">உவலைக் கண்ணியர் – men wearing leaf garlands, </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><span style="white-space: pre;">ஊன் புழுக்கு அயரும் – cook meat dishes</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மை ஊன் தெரிந்த நெய் வெண் புழுக்கல்</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Natrinai 83:5, Poet Perunthevanar</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">I willl take good care of you, and feed you goat meat along with white rat cooked in clear ghee and white rice,</span></div>
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மை ஊன் – goat meat</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வாராது அட்ட வாடூன் புழுக்கல்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perumpanatruppadai 100 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the forest the Eyirriyar woman cook the grain along with dried white meat, in an old pot with a ruined mouth rim, on a broken stove</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>துராஅய் துற்றிய துருவை அம் புழுக்கின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Porunaratruppadai 103 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The king urged me to eat (braised) cooked, thick thigh meat of sheep that were fed arukam grass twisted to ropes, and fatty, big pieces of meat roasted on iron </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">rods. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வயல் ஆமை புழுக்கு உண்டும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pattinappalai 64</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: pre; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><span style="text-align: left; white-space: pre;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In martial art field warriors eat roasted shrimp and steamed field tortoises.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b>9. Milirvai (மிளிர்வை)</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Milirvai (மிளிர்வை) means p</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ieces of flesh and vegetables in broth.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Pieces of Murrel fish in a broth </td><td class="tr-caption"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;"> </span></td></tr>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; white-space: pre;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கரும் கண் வராஅல் பெரும் தடி மிளிர்வையொடு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>புகர்வை அரிசி பொம்மல் பெரும் சோறு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Natrinai 60: 4-5, Thoongaleriyar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The farmer in Marutam land wake up at the crack of dawn without much sleep and ate large cooked pieces of black-eyed varal fish (in a broth) with big balls of fine rice.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-weight: normal;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>10. Varai (வறை)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Varai (</span>வறை) means fried meat</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பரல் வறை கருனை காடியின் மிதப்ப</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Porunaratruppadai 115</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The king gave me (bard) the boiled rice that looked like jasmine buds, all the grains of same size, unbroken, with no streaks, and long like fingers, along with stir-fried dishes,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பரல் – grains/seeds which were like pebbles, வறை கருனை – fried poriyal dishes, காடியின் மிதப்ப – filled to the neck,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>உடும்பின், வறை கால்யாத்தது வயின்தொறும் பெறுகுவிர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> - பெரும் 132,133</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In every home, you will be given fried dishes, cooked with iguana with eggs looking like conch shells that hide the rice served.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மண்டைய கண்ட மான் வறை கருனை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> To me and my family, the king gave venison to eat along with rice as long as a stork’s claw, the same food that he ate.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>11. Vattu (வாட்டு)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vattu (வாட்டு) means broiling the meat in direct fire. The process is observed to dry the meat. No utensil used in this process. Sometimes broiling is done by putting the meat in a pan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மனைவாழ் அளகின் வாட்டொடும் பெறுகுவிர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perumpanatruppadai 256</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> If you stay in that prosperous town, you will receive food cooked with white rice along with dishes cooked with hen from the house.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">12 Vadoon (வாடூன்)</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vadoon (வாடூன்) means preserving the meat (flesh) or fish by salting and drying. Dried meat with salt (உப்புக்கண்டம்). </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span><span style="text-align: center;">முரவு வாய்க் குழிசி முரி அடுப்பு ஏற்றி</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வாராது அட்ட வாடூன் புழுக்கல்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perumpanatruppadai 100 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In the forest the Eyirriyar woman cook the grain along with dried white meat, in an old pot with a ruined mouth rim, on a broken stove</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வாடூன் கொழும் குறை</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கொய்குரல் அரிசியொடு நெய்பெய்து அட்டு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>துடுப்பொடு சிவணிய களிக்கொள் வெண்சோறு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 328: 9-11, Poet Unknown</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">King will give you dry pieces of meat cooked together with grains</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>சூடு கிழித்து வாடூன் மிசையவும் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 386: 4, Poet Kovur Kilar sang for Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">King gave us to eat, fried meat dripping with ghee as when drops of rain shower down on a pond brimming with water, and meat roasted on skewers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>13 Vevai (வேவை)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vevai (வேவை) means water boiled meat.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>துராய் துற்றிய துருவை அம் புழுக்கின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பராரை வேவை பருகு எனத் தண்டி</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Porunaratruppadai 103 - 104</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">King urged me to eat cooked, thick thigh meat of sheep that were fed arukam grass twisted to ropes, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துராஅய் – arukam grass rolled as ropes, Cynodon grass, துற்றிய – fed, துருவை – sheep, அம் – beautiful, புழுக்கின் – cooked dish, பராஅரை – thick thigh, வேவை – cooked meat by water boiling பருகு எனத் தண்டி – urged me to eat</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">பரூஉக்குறை பொழிந்த நெய்க்கண் வேவையொடு</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">Malaipadukadam 168</span></div>
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You will receive from them dishes with big pieces of meat boiled (roasted) in ghee along with colorful <span style="text-align: left;">millet rice</span></div>
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<b>Quotes</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">To one who doesn’t kill and refuses meat, all lives will fold their arms and pay obeisance --Tirukural</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">“Ethically they had arrived at the conclusion that man's supremacy over lower animals meant not that the former should prey upon the latter, but that the higher should protect the lower, and that there should be mutual aid between the two as between man and man. They had also brought out the truth that man eats not for enjoyment but to live.” ― Mahatma Gandhi</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">“Non-violence leads to the highest ethics, which is the goal of all evolution. Until we stop harming all other living beings, we are still savages.” ― Thomas A. Edison</span></div>
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<b>Reference</b></div>
<ol style="color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Beef Eating in the Ancient Tamizhagam. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao (A paper presented during the 57th session of Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996). July 7, 2013. http://beef.sabhlokcity.com/2013/07/beef-eating-in-the-ancient-tamizhagam/</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Beef Politics: How Beef Was Consumed in Ancient Tamil Nadu. Ramanathan S. October 7, 2015 https://www.thequint.com/india/2015/10/07/beef-politics-how-beef-was-consumed-in-ancient-tamil-nadu</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Ethics of Eating Meat Wikipedia</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat cutting and utilization of meat cuts </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/t0279e/t0279e05.html</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat Wikipedia</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Literature Wikipedia</span></li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள் https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/sangam-tamil-books/</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Vegetarianism and Religion Wikipedia</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">இலக்கியமும் உணவுக் குறிப்புகளும் http://www.keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18907&Itemid=139</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">உணவுப் பண்பாடு. அ.கா.பெருமாள். http://keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12554&Itemid=139</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">உணவும் மதுவும் ப. சரவணன். http://www.tamilpaper.net/?p=8964</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">சங்ககால சமையல் http://mazhimegam.blogspot.in/2014/01/1_30.html</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">சங்கச்சோலை http://sangacholai.in/ and http://sangacholai.in/Essays-1.7.html</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">சங்கத்தமிழரின் உணவுமரபு http://paniveli.blogspot.in/2014/10/blog-post.html</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">தமிழ் மக்களின் உணவு புலால் http://www.vinavu.com/2015/06/25/flourishing-meating-culture-in-tamil-history/</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">பண்டைய தமிழர் உணவுகள் http://vairamani-lakshmi.blogspot.in/2011/08/blog-post_8263.html</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">பண்டைய கால தமிழர்களின் உணவு முறை! http://suvanappiriyan.blogspot.in/2014/08/blog-post_7.html</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">திணை விளக்கம் Wikipedia</li>
<li style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">தொல்காப்பியம் காட்டும் உணவு http://www.valaitamil.com/food-about-tolkappiyam_9017.html</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-783566709248162332017-06-07T02:05:00.002-07:002017-06-09T06:12:02.896-07:00Food in Sangam Literature 3: Rice and Millet in Sangam Tamil Cuisine<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px; text-align: right;">Civilization in the Ancient Indus River Valley</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Agriculture and the tillers of the soil are the linch-pin of the revolving world (</span><span style="text-align: left;">உழுவார் உலகத்தார்க்கு ஆணி)</span><span style="font-family: inherit;">. Agriculture was the main vocation of Sangam Tamils and necessity of their life. Therefore they bestowed maximum attention upon agriculture. Tirukural devotes an entire chapter on agriculture (ref. couplets 1031 - 1040). Tiruvalluvar extols the glory and greatness of agriculture and farmers:</span></div>
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சுழன்றும்ஏர்ப் பின்னது உலகம் அதனால் </div>
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உழந்தும் உழவே தலை. (Tirukural 1031)</div>
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Agriculture, though laborious, is the most excellent (form of labour); for people, though they go about (in search of various employments), have at last to resort to the farmer<br />
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உழுதுண்டு வாழ்வாரே வாழ்வார் மற்றெல்லாம் </div>
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தொழுதுண்டு பின் செல்லுவார். (Tirukural 1033)</div>
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They alone live who live by agriculture; all others lead a cringing, dependent life. </div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Cultivation of the food crops would have started in the 'Neostone age.' Archaeological evidences confirm that earliest cultivation in ancient Tamilakam would have started in the last phase of the 'Neostone age.' </span><span style="font-family: inherit;">The farmers of this age cultivated </span>crops such as rice, millets, various grams, beans, tamarind, sugarcane, plantain, coconuts, pepper, cotton, and sandalwood<span style="font-family: inherit;">. Sangam literature has references about use of iron agricultural tools and the farmlands were supported by water bodies such as tanks, wells and irrigation canals.</span></div>
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We have already noted about the existence of five geographical divisions of the Tamil country in Sangam literature i.e., Vanpulam or hardland (Mullai and Kurinji), Menpulam or fertile land (Marutam), Pinpulam or dry land (Mullai, Palai) and Kalarnilam or Uvarnilam or Salty land (Neital). The kinds of soil known during Sangam age included the alluvial soil, red soil, black soil, laterite soil and sandy soil and they knew what crops could be grown on each type of soil. Sangam literature has abundant references about agriculture. Purananuru, Perumpanatruppadai, Porunaratruppadai, Pattinappalai and Mathuraikanchi lines are shown here to depict the prosperity of Sangam era Tamilakam.</div>
ஏர் பரந்த வயல் நீர் பரந்த செறுவின்<br />
நெல் மலிந்த மனைப் பொன் மலிந்த மறுகின்<br />
Purananuru 338, Poet: Kundrur Kilar Makanar,<br />
Like Ponthai city of Neduvel Athan, with wide, plowed watery fields, houses filled with rice paddy, streets with gold, and groves with bees buzzing many flowers, she has great wealth.<br />
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நிலன் நெளி மருங்கின் நீர்நிலை பெருகத்<br />
தட்டோர் அம்ம இவண் தட்டோரே<br />
தள்ளாதோர் இவண் தள்ளாதோரே.<br />
Purananuru 18, Poet Kudapulaviyanar sang to Pandiyan Thalaiyalankanathu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan,<br />
O Cheliyan of murderous battles! You should not disdain my advice, but act quickly! Those who harnessed the flowing waters and built dams on land with depressions have established their glory! Those who have built none will have no enduring fame in this world! Civilization in the Ancient Indus River Valley<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><br />
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Pattinappalai depicts the king's intention to destroy <span style="text-align: center;">forests and convert them into paddy fields.</span></div>
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காடு கொன்று நாடாக்கிக்</div>
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குளம் தொட்டு வளம் பெருக்கிப்</div>
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(Pattinappalai 283 -84) </div>
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The King Cholan Karikalan who Brought Prosperity to his Country: Cholan Karikalan destroyed forests and made them habitable, dug ponds, expanded his capital city of Uranthai</div>
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Prosperity of Mathurai as shown Mathuraikanchi:</div>
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மழை தொழில் உதவ மாதிரம் கொழுக்க</div>
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தொடுப்பின் ஆயிரம் வித்தியது விளைய</div>
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நிலனும் மரனும் பயன் எதிர்பு நந்த</div>
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(Mathuraikanchi 10 – 12)</div>
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Without fault, rains help, the land thrives everywhere, one seed yields thousands, and land and trees give abundant benefits.</div>
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நீர்த் தெவ்வும் நிரைத் தொழுவர்</div>
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பாடு சிலம்பு இசை ஏற்றத்</div>
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தோடு வழங்கும் அகல் ஆம்பியின்</div>
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கயன் அகைய வயல் நிறைக்கும்</div>
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மென் தொடை வன் கிழாஅர்</div>
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அதரி கொள்பவர் பகடு பூண் தெள்மணி</div>
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(Mathuraikanchi 89 – 94)</div>
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On the seashore filled with sand and sapphire colored mundakam flowers, there are sounds of those singing as they draw water rapidly with their wide buckets to water the fields, along with those</div>
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from strong water-lifts with delicately tied strings, as the ponds become dry. There are jingling sounds from the clear bells on bulls that thresh. </div>
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வெள்ளம் மாறாது விளையுள் பெருக</div>
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நெல்லின் ஓதை அரிநர் கம்பலை</div>
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(Mathuraikanchi 109 – 110)</div>
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Splendor of Muthu Vellilai town: In your Muthu Vellilai town, the waterflows in your rivers do not change, harvests are abundant, and rustling sounds of grain spears are heard.</div>
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நல்லேர் நடந்த நசைசால் விளைவயல்</div>
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(Mathuraikanchi 173)</div>
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Where fine bulls walked to plow the yielding field</div>
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Porunaratruppadai</div>
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கூனிக் குயத்தின் வாய் நெல் அரிந்து</div>
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சூடு கோடாகப் பிறக்கி நாள் தொறும்</div>
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குன்று எனக் குவைஇய குன்றாக் குப்பை</div>
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Porunaratruppadai 242 - 48) </div>
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Prosperity showered by River Kāviri: Women bend and cut paddy with sickles, and bundles of sheaves are stacked each day like mountains, in heaps that never become small.</div>
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Perumpanatruppadai</div>
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மிதி உலைக் கொல்லன் முறி கொடிற்று அன்ன</div>
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கவைத்தாள் அலவன் அளற்று அளை சிதைய</div>
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பைஞ்சாய் கொன்ற மண்படு மருப்பின்</div>
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கார் ஏறு பொருத கண்அகன் செறுவின்</div>
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உழாஅ நுண் தொளி நிரவிய வினைஞர்</div>
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முடிநாறழுத்திய நெடுநீர்ச் செறு </div>
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(Perumpanatruppadai 206-212)</div>
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Dark colored oxen with sand on their horns from fighting with each other ruin the reeds and the mud holes of crabs with forked legs, resembling broken tongs used by a metalsmith who blows softleather bellows by pressing a treadle with his feet. Workers walk on fine mud and prepare the land without plowing and press down the paddy seedlings in the fields with abundant water</div>
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ஒரு பிடி படியுஞ் சீறிடம்</div>
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எழு களிறு புரக்கும் நாடு கிழவோயே.</div>
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Purananuru 40, Poet Avur Moolankilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan,</div>
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O lord of the country where a small space fit for a female elephant produces food for seven male elephants!</div>
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To remove the poverty of his relatives, the peasant obtained low yielding kodo millet on loan. Purananuru poem 327 portrays the condition of the peasant even during Sangam era. </div>
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எருது கால் உறாஅது இளைஞர் கொன்ற<br />
சில்விளை வரகின் புல்லென் குப்பை<br />
தொடுத்த கடவர்க்குக் கொடுத்த மிச்சில்<br />
பசித்த பாணர் உண்டு கடை தப்பலின்<br />
ஒக்கல் ஒற்கம் சொலியத் தன்னூர்ச்<br />
சிறு புல்லாளர் முகத்தவை கூறி<br />
வரகுடன் இரக்கும் நெடுந்தகை<br />
அரசு வரின் தாங்கும் வல்லாளன்னே.<br />
Purananuru 327, Poet: Unknown,<br />
After giving besieging creditors their due share, the noble man who had the strength to repel kings had a small heap of low-yielding millet, stamped by youngsters, without bulls touching them to thresh, that was eaten up by hungry bards. Since no one came to his gate, in order to remove the poverty of his relatives, he told petty minded men what he needed and borrowed millet from them.<br />
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Another Purananuru poem 333 depicts the peasant's suffering due to poverty. They lead a miserable life. In this house the peasant householder has spent all the common millet by serving millet meals to the bards. He don't want to leave his guest with hungry stomach. So the couple decided to cook the clusters of millet preserved as a seed for sowing. The housewife hand pounded the millet and cooked the food and served to the bard.</div>
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வரகும் தினையும் உள்ளவை எல்லாம்<br />
இரவல் மாக்கள் உணக்கொளத் தீர்ந்தெனக்<br />
குறித்துமாறு எதிர்ப்பை பெறாஅ மையின்<br />
குரல் உணங்கு விதைத் தினை உரல்வாய்ப் பெய்து<br />
சிறிது புறப்பட்டன்றோவிலளே தன்னூர்<br />
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Purananuru 333, Poet: Unknown,</div>
O poets, because the housewife, since all her common millet and little millet have been given to those in need, and unable to give anything else, will set the clusters of millets that was set aside for seed on her pounding stone, and feed you, before she lets you go.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Tolkappiyam on Food</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tolkappiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்) is the earliest available grammatical work in Tamil. It is composed in the form of short formulaic compositions a.k.a noorpaa (நூற்பா). Its three books include the Ezhuttadikaram, the Solladikaram and the Poruladikaram. In the third book Poruladikaram (பொருளதிகாரம்), Marapiyal (மரபியல்) chapter, noorpaa (நூற்பா) 623 defines about eight kinds of food:</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">“மெய் திரி வகையின் எண்வகை உணவில் செய்தியும் உரையார்” (Tolkappiyam, Poruladikaram, Marapiyal, Noorpaa 623) </span></div>
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Ilampooranar (<span style="text-align: left;"> இளம்பூரணர்)</span>, a commentator of Tolkappiyam interprets the eight kinds of food as eight kinds of cereals: paddy (<span style="text-align: left;">நெல்), horse gram (காணம்), kodo millet (வரகு), great millet (இறுங்கு), fox-tail millet (தினை), little millet (சாமை), forage (புல்) and wheat (கோதுமை). North Indian classical literature classifies food into eight different categories: cereals (Sugadayana), lentils (samidayana), vegetables (sakna), fruits (pala), spices (appiyam), dairy products (bayovarga), meat (mamsa varga) and intoxicating liquor (madhya varga) Food was cooked based on these eight categories. Perhaps this type of cooking would have made in the royal kitchens and wealthy mansions. </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">As per Tamil tradition food is generally categorized in five kinds. Pingala Nigandu, </span>a Tamil thesaurus written by Pingala Munivar in 10th century A.D., cites five actions of eating i.e., feel the salty taste using the tip of the tongue (<span style="text-align: left;">கறித்தல்), lick (நக்கல்), drink (பருகல்), swallow (விழுங்கல்) and mastication (மெல்லல்), </span>This seminal text Tolkappiyam refers food as "<span style="text-align: left;">உணா</span><span style="text-align: left;"> " (Una). </span> <span style="text-align: left;">Pingala Nigandu also cites various Tamil words related to food and they include: </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: center;">“உணாவே வல்சி உண்டி ஓதனம்</span></div>
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அசனம் பகதம் இசை ஆசாரம்</div>
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உறை, ஊட்டம்”</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Two more words "புகா" and "மிசை" also refer to food. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Millets</b></span></div>
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Millet can be defined as ‘any of several species of cereal grasses in the family Poaceae.’ Millet was believed as one of the oldest human food and considered to be the first domesticated cereal crops. Though it is not easy to cognize the exact origin, it is accepted to a great extent that millet was domesticated and cultivated simultaneously in Asia and Africa during the Neolithic era. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) probably originated in southern Asia and is the oldest of the cultivated millet. Greek historian Herodotus has recorded about the millet growing Assyria. In Egyptian civilization ancient Egyptians was knowledgeable in growing millet in the arid Sahara around 3000 BC. </div>
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In some places, particularly Gujarat, Indus Valley peasants cultivated some native millet; possibly broomcorn millet, which may have been introduced from southern Central Asia. In Sangam period the inhabitants of Mullai (pastoral) tracts cultivated Kodo millet or varagu (Paspalum Scrobiculatum), Italian millet or tinai ( Satariaitalica) and samai (Panicum Milliare) as well as pulses like horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) and legumes like beans, lentils and tamarind.</div>
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<b>Rice</b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Rice (grass species Oryzasativa or Oryzaglaberrima.), one of the oldest known crops to have been cultivated by man, has fed more people over a longer period of time than any other crop. Rice, believed to have domesticated from the wild grass Oryza rufipogon roughly 10,000–14,000 years ago, is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world’s human population, especially in Asia. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Based on archaeological evidence, rice was believed to have been first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China. Later on rice cultivation spread throughout Sri Lanka, and India. It was then passed onto Greece and areas of the Mediterranean. Rice spread throughout Southern Europe and to some parts of North Africa. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">During Neolithic revolution (8000 - 4000 B.C.) agriculture was far from the dominant mode of support for human societies. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Indian agriculture </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and domestication of crops and animals </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">commenced in 9000 B.C. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Barley and wheat cultivation was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000 - 6000 B.C. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Wild rice cultivation appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 B.C. and 5440 B.C. respectively. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Harrappan regions.</span><br />
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman'; text-align: left;">Sangam Tamil Cuisine</b><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">During Sangam period marutam region was much suitable for cultivation of main food crops. </span>The staple food of the Sangam Tamils </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">have been rice, supplemented with various vegetables and meat. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> Paddy was the main crop and different varieties of paddy such as</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Aivanam (ஐவனம்), </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;">Chenjali (செஞ்சாலி), Chennel (செந்நெல்), Chol (சொல்), Iyavai (இயவை), </span>Torai (தோரை), <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;">Vari </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;"> (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;">வரி)</span> <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;">etc., Ch</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ennel and Pudunel were the more refined varieties. </span> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><i><u>Rice Varieties</u></i></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Cooked rice was known in different names in Sangam literature. Choodamani Nigandu (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">சூடாமணி நிகண்டு</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, Tamil thesaurus lists out related terms: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Atisil (அடிசில்), அமலை (Amalai), Amizhthu (அமிழ்து), Annam (அன்னம்), Arru (அற்று), Asanam (அசனம்), Ayini (அயினி), Avi (அவி), Avizh (அவிழ்), Azhini (அழினி), Othanam (ஓதனம்), Un (ஊண்), Una (உணா), Undi (உண்டி), Kondri (கொன்றி), Kuzh (கூழ்), Madai (மடை), Mural (மூரல்), Misai (மிசை), Mithavai (மிதவை), Nimiral (நிமிரல்), Palitham (பாளிதம்), Parukkai (பருக்கை), Patham (பதம்), Pathu (பாத்து), Pomman (பொம்மன்), Ponagam (போனகம்), Puka (புகா), Punkam (புன்கம்), Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்), Saru (சரு), Sondri (சொன்றி), Soru (சோறு), Thori (தோரி), Thurru (துற்று) and Valsi (வல்சி).</span><br />
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Cooked raw rice (பச்சரிசி) was known as 'pongal' and the cooked boiled rice (புழுங்கல் அரிசி) was known as 'puzhungal (புழுங்கல்).' Cooked rice soaked in water is well known as 'kanji' (<span style="text-align: left;">கஞ்சி). </span><span style="text-align: left;">Pingala Nigandu also</span> cites various Tamil words related to kanji and the list includes kadi (<span style="text-align: left;">காடி), mozhai (மோழை), and suvaku (சுவாகு). </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjtRPtAGFAs1R4HGYXcB8prmNuQ28WQ-gdpBmVtvf5fZLwyt8fGnfnUKlNEE7VuOWyCUAvRwthWSdoZzDjm1V0FFhy0LirAMy4qnQmij6GE08_GO9AGl-i4O5xpgm7FL2x7riifCisCcqS/s1600/13450186_1721343071439265_6591450872765836488_n.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="484" data-original-width="400" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjtRPtAGFAs1R4HGYXcB8prmNuQ28WQ-gdpBmVtvf5fZLwyt8fGnfnUKlNEE7VuOWyCUAvRwthWSdoZzDjm1V0FFhy0LirAMy4qnQmij6GE08_GO9AGl-i4O5xpgm7FL2x7riifCisCcqS/s400/13450186_1721343071439265_6591450872765836488_n.jpg" width="330" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: left;">Un Choru (</span><span style="font-size: small; text-align: left;">ஊன் சோறு)</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="DSC02774.JPG (1200×630)" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE51u3Rl3yz8fbuye_0fFyrL7280nY66vcRK8K9tx1RC74h4IEAD5Raoe0a4SmyWnSzu6tXny5UcoljEpBQhvyty2XCuafj_j9akLnwfDhSsAPyO3fIFSUBTbG65GW1ABSp5xUOq7SPDMx/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/DSC02774.JPG" height="210" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: left;">tamarind broth (</span><span style="font-size: small; text-align: left;">புளிக்குழம்பு)</span></td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: left;">Un Choru (</span><span style="text-align: left;">ஊன் சோறு) - seasoned rice cooked with meat; Ghee Choru (</span><span style="text-align: left;">நெய்ச்சோறு)</span><span style="text-align: left;"> - rice cooked with ghee in a glutinous consistency; Milk Choru (</span><span style="text-align: left;">பாற்சோறு) - </span><span style="text-align: left;">rice cooked with boiled milk </span><span style="text-align: left;">in a glutinous consistency</span><span style="text-align: left;">; Puli-Choru (</span><span style="text-align: left;">புளிச்சோறு) cooked rice mixed with tamarind broth (</span><span style="text-align: left;">புளிக்குழம்பு); White rice (</span><span style="text-align: left;">வெண்சோறு) fine cooked rice; Blood rice (</span><span style="text-align: left;">செஞ்சோறு) cooked rice mixed with blood of the animal under sacrifice. </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><i><u>Great Feast</u></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Tamil grammar Perunchorru Nilai (பெருஞ்சோற்று நிலை) is defined as part of Vanji tinai, a puram tinai. The king used to host the great feast to his brave soldiers before going to the battlefield. The victorious soldiers returning from the battlefield were also honored with great feast. Tolkappiyam refers this as "பிண்டம் மேய பெருஞ்சோற்று நிலை."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பெருஞ்சோற்று மிகுபதம் வரையாது கொடுத்தோய் </span><span style="text-align: center;">(Purananuru 2)</span><br />
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<i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Broth </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குழம்பு)</span></u></i><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Broth </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குழம்பு), a concentrated sauce was cooked in </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Tamil kitchens </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and used as side dish. The main course was white cooked rice.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Broth is a savory liquid made of water in which vegetables have been simmered. Pingala Nigandu, a Tamil thesaurus refer two Tamil words for broth i.e., Paku (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">பாகு), Aanam (ஆணம்)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> They have used tamarind pulp and lentils (dhal) to prepare broth. Kuruntokai (poem 167) describes one such broth cooked by the heroine in a Sangam Tamil kitchen.</span></div>
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முளி தயிர் பிசைந்த காந்தள் மெல் விரல்,</div>
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கழுவுறு கலிங்கம், கழாஅது, உடீஇ,</div>
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குவளை உண்கண் குய்ப்புகை கழுமத்</div>
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தான் துழந்து அட்ட தீம் புளிப் பாகர்</div>
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''இனிது'' எனக் கணவன் உண்டலின்,</div>
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நுண்ணிதின் மகிழ்ந்தன்று ஒண்ணுதல் முகனே.</div>
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(Kuruntokai 167; Poet Kudalur Kilar)</div>
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(Step mother of the heroine speaks with her own mother. (செவிலித்தாய், நற்றாய்க்கு உரைத்தது)</div>
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She mashed thick curds with her delicate fingers that resemble glory lily petals, and wiped them on her clothes without washing them. Smoke from her cooking spread around and touched her kohl-lined eyes that are like blue waterlilies.</div>
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She cooked sweet tamarind curry that he enjoyed and ate. Her face revealed her happiness in a delicate manner, the young woman with a bright forehead.<br />
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தீம்புளிப் பாகர்= broth mixed with thick curd and tamarind pulp and seasoned with spices. Peppercorns, coriander seeds, black Jaggery, tender coconut, honey, ginger, turmeric, tamarind, mustard seeds, ghee were the ingredients used by Sangam Tamils.. Onion, tomatoes, green chilly, red chilly, bell pepper, garlic, cloves, refined oil, white sugar, tea leaves, coffee beans, tobacco, areca nut etc., were not available during Sangam age. These ingredients were introduced by foreign traders between 15th and 16th century A.D. They have used mustard to season the broth. They have used beans (அவரை) constantly to prepare sour broth (<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புளிக்குழம்பு)</span>. </div>
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<b style="text-align: left;">1. Atisil (அடிசில்) </b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Rice<b> </b>over cooked glutinous rice. It tends to stick. It has the properties of adhesive. Example Akkara Atisil (Over cooked glutinous sweet rice) </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Akkara-Adisal-recipe.jpg (600×450)" src="http://priyakitchenette.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Akkara-Adisal-recipe.jpg" height="300" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Akkara Atisi (Sweet Pongal)</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Milk Atsil (Milk Rice)</td></tr>
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குறுகுறு நடந்து சிறுகை நீட்டி</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இட்டும் தொட்டும் கவ்வியும் துழந்தும்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>நெய்யுடை அடிசில் மெய்பட விதிர்த்தும்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மயக்குறு மக்களை இல்லோர்க்குப்</div>
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பயக்குறை இல்லைத் தாம் வாழும் நாளே. </div>
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(Purananuru 188: 3-6 Poet: Pandian Arivudai Nampi)</div>
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He has not lived usefully in all his days, unless, he has fascinating children who can walk up to him in little steps, stretch out their tiny hands for food, set it down, touch and chew it, knead and smear rice and ghee all over themselves, interrupting his meals<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Ghee Atisil (Ghee Rice)</td></tr>
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புதுக்கலத்தன்ன செவ்வாய்ச் சிற்றில்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>புனையிரும் கதுப்பின் நின் மனையோள் அயரப்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பாலுடை அடிசில் தொடீஇய ஒருநாள்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மாவண் தோன்றல்! வந்தனை சென்மோ! – அகம் 394/9-12</div>
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(Akananuru 394: 2-6, Nanpalur Sirumethaviyar,)</div>
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Oh great generous lord, please come for a day to your small house with a front yard as red as a new clay pot, thorn fences and a pavilion with bent legs, where your wife with black, braided hair will serve you a meal with milk.</div>
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Raw rice cooked to glutinous consistency and being served with wooden ladle. The steaming rice dollop is now in the plate. The steaming spicy mutton gravy being poured on the rice scoop. </div>
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குய் குரல் மலிந்த கொழும் துவை அடிசில்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>இரவலர்த் தடுத்த வாயில் புரவலர் </div>
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Purananuru 250: 1-2, Poet: Thayankanniyar</div>
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The sounds of cooking abundant rich food with spices used to stop those who came for alms at the door, preventing their leaving. </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan. Kumamanan was the chieftain of Mutiram hills. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The poet went to Kumanan and received abundant gift. The chieftain also served glutinous rice and the simmering broth with fatty meat and seasoned </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">with ghee and spices. The spicy food prevents the bard from returning home.</span></div>
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குய் கொள் கொழும் துவை நெய்யுடை அடிசில்</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மதி சேர் நாள்மீன் போல நவின்ற</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>சிறு பொன் நன் கலம் சுற்ற இரீஇ -</div>
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Purananuru 160: 7 - 9, Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan</div>
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Kumanan will place fatty meat cooked with spices and ghee on small gold bowls marked by constant use like stars that surround</div>
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the moon</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet Avvaiyar sang on Athiyaman Neduman Anji. Athiyaman Neduman Anji was a Sangam Age chieftain who ruled Thakadur region. He was known for his valour and generosity. Poet Avvaiyar is in praise of the chieftain. The Chieftain served nectar like tasty food to the poet and the bards who visited the Chieftain's palace. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“அமிழ்தன மரபின் ஊன்துவை அடிசில்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வெள்ளி வெண் கலத்து ஊட்டல் அன்றி”</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He gave joy-giving toddy according to tradition and nectar-like tasty food with minced meat dishes in a white silver bowl.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Pathitrupattu fifth ten poems 41 - 50 were composed by Poet Paranar sang on Kadal Pirakottiya Senguttuvan. In poem 45 the poet describes the hospitality extended by the Chera king. The king offered nectar like minced meat and rice in a silver bowl. -</span></div>
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“சோறு வேறு என்னா ஊன் துவை அடிசில்</div>
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ஓடா பீடர் உள் வழி இறுத்து”<br />
(Patitrupattu 45: 13 - 14)<br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">You dined in the company of your warriors, </span>proud men who did not run away from battles, feeding them abundant meat and rice cooked together.</div>
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<b style="text-align: justify;">2. Amalai (அமலை)</b></div>
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Amalai (அமலை) means overabundant or copious or plentious. Sangam poems refer Amalai for overabundant rice. Cholan Nalankilli offered the heap of rice mixed with meat. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>ஊன் சோற்று அமலை பாண் கடும்பு அருத்தும் - புறம் 33/14</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 33, Poet Kovur Kilar sang to Cholan Nalankilli, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The families of bards are nourished with overabundant rice mixed with meat</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>அமலை கொழும் சோறு ஆர்ந்த பாணர்க்கு </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 34: 14, Poet Alathur Kilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“May he live long, our king Valavan, who gives with an open mind abundant wealth to bards who utter sweet words and eat huge heap of rich, cooked rice mixed with honey and millet grown in dry fields, that are as large as the eggs of pigeons, with cooked rabbit meat.”</span><br />
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3. <b>Ayini (அயினி)</b></div>
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Ayini means dining the unlimited amount of food. </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துவரப் புலர்ந்து தூ மலர் கஞலித்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தகரம் நாறுந் தண் நறுங்கதுப்பின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புது மண மகடூஉ அயினிய கடி நகர்ப்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பல் கோட்டு அடுப்பில் பால் உலை இரீஇ</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Akananuru 141: 12 -15. Poet Kapilar)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A small-bangled bride with fragrant 'thakaram' </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">paste in her soft hair joins other women and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">boils milk on a stove with many sides. </span></div>
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<b>4. Una (உணா)</b> means cooked rice </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பணை நிலைப் புரவி புல் உணாத் தெவிட்ட – Mathuraikanji 660</div>
elephant keepers hand feed rice balls of food to their fierce male elephants in the stables,<br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>சில் உணா தந்த சீறூர்ப் பெண்டிர் – Akananuru 283: 5</div>
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women from a small village bring food from the forest where they wander</div>
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<b>5. Undi (உண்டி)</b></div>
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Undi (<span style="text-align: center;">உண்டி) in general means food. Kuruntokai 156: 1-4 considers that those who consume undi (food) after observing fast from morning. Purananuru poem 18 states that those who gave undi (food) gave life. Undi means consuming undi (food) after observing fast or intake after feeling hungry.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; white-space: pre;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கிணைமகள் அட்ட பாவற் புளிங்கூழ்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பொழுது மறுத்துண்ணும் உண்டியேன் அழிவு கொண்டு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Akananuru 141: 12 -15. Poet Kapilar)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">I will not leave him. I will not. I will not look at other faces. I, who eats food at improper times, ate the watery sour gruel given by a drummer woman who sold fish that she caught with a long pole.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="food-served-on-a-banana-leafa-tradition-of-the-kerala-state-in-india---51920355.jpg (512×356)" height="278" src="https://www.pixoto.com/images-photography/food-and-drink/ingredients/food-served-on-a-banana-leafa-tradition-of-the-kerala-state-in-india---51920355.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="text-align: justify;">Undi (</span><span style="font-size: x-small;">உண்டி) Food Ready to eat</span></span></td></tr>
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உண்டி கொடுத்தோர் உயிர்கொடுத்தோரே </div>
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உண்டி முதற்றே உணவின் பிண்டம்</div>
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(Purananuru 18:19)</div>
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Those who give food give them life. Food is foremost to this body built of food.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உண்டி சுருங்குதல் பெண்டிர்க்கு அழகு</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Poet Avvaiyar. Aphorism of Kondrai Vendhan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Moderate eating makes a woman pretty</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“மாறுபாடு இல்லாத உண்டி மறுத்துஉண்ணின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊறுபாடு இல்லை உயிர்க்கு”</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (Tirukural 945) </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">With self-denial take the well-selected meal; So shall thy frame no sudden sickness feel.</span><br />
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கிணைமகள் அட்ட பாகல் புளிங்கூழ் </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பொழுதுமறுத்துண்ணும் உண்டியேன் (Purananuru 399:16,17)</div>
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cooked in a bright pot with fermented gruel, with vallai leaves from fields, fatty big pieces of horned fish, large pieces of varal fish,</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meaning: There will be no disaster to one's life if one eats with moderation, food that is not disagreeable.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>6. Un or Oon (ஊண்)</b> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Un or Oon (ஊண்)<b> </b>means food in general. Also cooked rice. It refers eating. Also the word means meat. (</span>ஊ<span style="text-align: center;">ன்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தவச் சிறிதாயினும் மிகப் பலர் என்னான்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Even though he has very little, he gives what he can, like a woman in a house who gives food under a pavilion in an orderly manner.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“ஊனும் ஊணும் முனையின் இனிதெனப்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பாலிற் பெய்தவும் பாகிற் கொண்டவும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அளவுபு கலந்து மெல்லிது பருகி</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விருந்துஉறுத்து ஆற்ற இருந்தனெ மாக” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">When we were tired of eating meat (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊன்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and food (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஊண்) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">along with sugar syrup mixed with rice in </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">perfect proportions, enjoying his hospitality </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and having no hunger, we said to him, “Lord,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">we are leaving for our country with festivals!”</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>7. Karunai (கருனை)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Karunai (கருனை) means food fried with either ghee or oil. </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கருங்கண் கருனை செந்நெல் வெண்சோறு (Natrinai. 367: 3, Poet Nakkeerar)</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Female crow calls its flocks to eat food offerings of fine white rice and karunai yam with black spots, that have been left for gods</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>மண்டைய கண்ட மான் வறை கருனை </div>
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(Purananuru 398: 24, Poet Thiruthamanar sang for Cheraman Vanjan) </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> To me and my family, he gave venison to eat along with rice as long as a stork’s claw, the same food that he ate.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பசுங்கண் கருனை சூட்டொடு மாந்தி </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puranānuru 395: 37, Poet Mathurai Nakkeerar sang for Cholanattu Pidavur Kilarmakan Perunchathan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">those who eat cooked fresh vegetables and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">meat along with boiled rice grains </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>பரல் வறை கருனை காடியின் மிதப்ப </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Porunaratruppadai 115 Poet Mudathamakkaniyar sang on Cholan Karikalan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">One day, he gave me boiled rice that looked </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">like jasmine buds, all the grains of same size, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">unbroken, with no streaks, and long </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">like fingers, along with stir-fried dishes, resembling like gem stones.</span><br />
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<b>8. Kali (களி)</b></div>
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Kali means paste like food prepared using flours of ragi (finger millet), tinai (fox-tail millet). It was a wholesome meal during Sangam era. It was enjoyed by people of strata. The millet flour is added slowly in a boiling water and stirred with a ladle to a paste like consistency.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>அவையா அரிசி அம் களி துழவை </div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpatruppadai 275 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">when you are hungry, you will receive freshly cooked fish and fine, fragrant liquor that is made by making a mash of unpounded, boiled rice spread on pots with wide mouths to cool,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவையா அரிசி – unpounded rice (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவைத்த அரிசி - pounded rice)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, அம் களித் துழவை – beautiful boiled mash, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துழவை (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">mash).</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>துடுப்பொடு சிவணிய களி கொள் வெண் சோறு - புறம் 328:11</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 328, Poet: Unknown,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He will give you toddy, as sour as kalavu fruits, after he gives you dry pieces of meat cooked together with grains from plucked spears, and curds poured into a milk pot with ilanthai fruits, cooked with ghee, stirred with a ladle and served with white rice. துடுப்பொடு – with ladle, சிவணிய – stirred, களிக் கொள் – happily, வெண் சோறு – white rice</span><br />
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<b>9. Sondri (சொன்றி) Cooked rice</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam era poems mean soru (சோறு) as cooked rice as well as the broth and the side dishes. Sondri (சொன்றி)</span><b style="color: black; font-family: 'times new roman'; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> is just the cooked rice or any millet. Sadham (</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சாதம்) (வடமொழி). Edible part of the paddy. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சொல்லுள் (நெல்லுள்) இருப்பது சோறு).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஏற்றுக உலையே, ஆக்குக சோறே’ </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 172, Poet Vadama Vannakkan Thamōtharanar sang on Pittankotran)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Set the pot on the stove! Cook the rice!</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; white-space: pre;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சுவல் விளை நெல்லின் செவ் அவிழ் சொன்றி </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 131, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> In every home, you will be given red cooked rice of paddy grown on high land.</span><br />
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சுவல் விளை – growing on the high land, நெல்லின் செவ் அவிழ்ச் சொன்றி – red cooked rice of paddy</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>குறுந்தாள் வரகின் குறள் அவிழ் சொன்றி</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 193, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">You will receive a sweet tasting meal made with little millet </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வரகரிசிச் சோறு</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) rice</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>புன்புல வரகின் சொன்றியொடு பெறூஉம்</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puranānūru 197, Poet Kōnattu Erichalur Madalan Mathurai Kumaranar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He treats us well with cooked liitle millet (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வரகரிசிச் சோறு</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) rice</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புன்புல வரகின் – from the millet from dry fields, சொன்றியொடு பெறூஉம் – will get with the meal (millet),</span></div>
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<b>10. Soru (சோறு) </b></div>
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Soru (சோறு)<b style="font-weight: normal;"> </b>means cooked rice or millet which forms the main course or the whole meals.<span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>எயிற்றியர் அட்ட இன் புளி வெம் சோறு - சிறு 175</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Sirupanatruppadai 175 Nallur Nathathanar. king Ōyman Nalliyakodan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Eyitriyar Women living in the waste land cooked hot rice mixed with sweet tamarind </span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>வால் நிணம் உருக்கிய வாஅல் வெண் சோறு - அகம் 107/9</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru107: 9, Kaviripoompattinathu Karikkannanar,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">White fatty meat melted with pure white rice </span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>ஈயல் பெய்து அட்ட இன் புளி வெம் சோறு</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 394: 5, Nanpalur Sirumethuviyar,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">White ants (winged) from a wet mound (</span>ஈயல்) were collected and cooked with white rice after pouring sweet tamarind.<br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>கறி சோறு ஊண்டு வருந்து தொழில் அல்லது</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 14, Poet Kapilar sang to Cheraman Selva Kadunko Valiyathan)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Since they know no stress, other than that of eating rice cooked with meat, and chunks of fresh meat roasted in fire with flower-fragrant smoke.</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>நிணம் பெருத்த கொழும் சோற்று இடை - புறம் 384/14</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 384: 14, Poet Purathinai Nannakanar sang to Karampanur Kilan,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He pours ghee more freely than water on my rice with large pieces of fatty meat.</span></div>
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<b>11. Thuzhavai (துழவை)</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Semi-solid food (porridge) cooked using rice gruel or flours of millets. While cooking the porridge is well stirred with ladle. (துழாவியட்ட கூழ்). Its consistency is slightly looser than kali (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">களி)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: justify;">Porridge well stirred with ladle. (துழாவியட்ட கூழ்)</span></td></tr>
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அவையா அரிசி அம் களி துழவை </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpatruppadai 275 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">when you are hungry, you will receive freshly cooked fish and fine, fragrant liquor that is made by making a mash of unpounded, boiled rice spread on pots with wide mouths to cool,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவையா அரிசி – unpounded rice (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவைத்த அரிசி - pounded rice)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, அம் களித் துழவை – beautiful boiled mash, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">துழவை (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">mash).</span></div>
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<b>12 நுவணை</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Nuvaṇai means fineness. Flour obtained by hand pounding of rice and millets to fineness. (</span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நன்கு </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இடித்த </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தனிய மாவு) </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Honey and Foxtail millet (தேனும் தினை மாவும்) - <span style="font-size: x-small;">நுண் இடி நுவணை</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> மென்றிணை நுவணை யுண்டு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Ainkurunuru 285, Poet Kapilar). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A mountain dweller’s daughter </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">eats </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">tender millet flour,</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>விசையம் கொழித்த பூழி அன்ன</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>உண்ணுநர்த் தடுத்த நுண் இடி நுவணை</div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Malaipadukadam 445, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar sang on King Nannan Venmān.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Every day you will be given dishes made with fine millet flour mixed with sifted sugar powder</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விசையம் கொழித்த பூழி அன்ன – like sifted powder made with sugar, உண்ணுநர்த் தடுத்த – blocking others from eating (other food), நுண் இடி நுவணை – finely powdered millet powder</span><br />
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<b style="text-align: justify;">13. Valci (வல்சி)</b></div>
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Valci means particular food consumed by particular people or animal for their survival. Whatever may be the stuff or its status i.e., plant, corn, cereals, lentils, flesh, uncooked or cooked, beverages. For farmers rice, millets, lentils, fish, crab etc are the food (valci).</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Abundant food (குடிநிறை வல்சி)</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குடி நிறை வல்சி செம் சால் உழவர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 197)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Farmers (plowmen) are in possession of abundant food (vaci) where plowmen who create perfect furrows.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குடிநிறை வல்சி – abundant food in the community, செஞ்சால் – those who make perfect furrows to plant seeds, உழவர் – farmers, plowmen</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">வளம் செய் வினைஞர் வல்சி நல்க</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">(Malaipadukadam 462)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Women will serve you fish along with valci (cooked rice). Paddy produced by farmers of the land who cause prosperity.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">வளம் செய் வினைஞர் – the workers who cause prosperity, வல்சி நல்க – give food</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">விளைபதச் சீறிடம் நோக்கி, வளைகதிர்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வல்சி கொண்டு, அளை மல்க வைக்கும்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எலிமுயன் றனைய ராகி, </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Purananuru 190, Cholan Nalluthiran,) </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">rats that look for the maturation season and collect</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">heavy clusters of grains and fill up their holes!</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வினைஞர் தந்த வெண்ணெல் வல்சி</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanatruppadai 255)</span></div>
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you will receive food cooked with white (cooked) rice brought by workers .</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Minced meat plus beans chutney mixed Rice (ஊன் துவை <span style="font-size: x-small;">வல்சி)</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">“செவ்வூன் தோன்றா வெண்துவை முதிரை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வால்ஊன் வல்சி” </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pathitruppathu 55 Poet Poet: Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar sang on Cheran Adukōt Pattu Cheralathan</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">You are a body shield to your warriors</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">who eat white lentil chutney</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and rice cooked with white meat</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">without any red meat.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எறி மட மாற்கு வல்சி ஆகும்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Natrinai 6 Paranar</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">frolicking, delicate deer .eat ripe 'Kumilam' fruits with curved .tips that grow along the forest paths,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எறி மட மாற்கு – for the leaping innocent deer, வல்சி ஆகும் – will become food</span><br />
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<i><u><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Viands </span>(பலகாரம்)</u></i><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kummayam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கும்மாயம்)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Tamils have enjoyed delicious viands (பலகாரம்) or tiffin. Perumpanarrupadai refers about 'Kummayam' (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கும்மாயம்) prepared using lentils and jaggery. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="aadi_kummayam_1.png (1334×1000)" height="299" src="https://malarmuthu.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/aadi_kummayam_1.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: justify;">Kummayam</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவரை வான் புழுக்கு அட்டி பயில்வுற்று</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இன்சுவை மூரல் பெறுகுவிர் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Perumpanattruppadai 194 - 195)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">You will receive a sweet tasting meal made with small millet, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">பயிற்றுத் தன்மை கெடாது கும்மாயமியற்றி</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">(Manimekalai)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mel Adai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">மெல் அடை)</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In Mathuraikanchi there are information about vendors selling 'Mel Adai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">மெல் அடை) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">sweet dish prepared with rice and it appears like a honey comb. It also refers about 'Mothakam' prepared with rice dough with sugar syrup fillings</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நல்வரி இறாஅல் புரையும் மெல் அடை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அயிர் உருப்பு உற்ற ஆடு அமை விசயம்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கவவொடு பிடித்த வகை அமை மோதகம்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தீஞ்சேற்றுக் கூவியர் தூங்குவனர் உறங்க</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Mathuraikanchi 624 - 627)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">vendors who sell delicate adais that are like honeycombs with fine lines and mothakams (</span><span style="text-align: left;">மோதகம்)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> that are made on the palms pressing fingers, with fillings with sugar syrup, go to sleep,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Panniyam (</span><span style="text-align: left;">பண்ணியம்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><img alt="002-204.jpg (680×382)" src="http://villangaseithi.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/002-204.jpg" height="224" width="400" /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mathuraikanchi also refers about the vendors selling Panniyam (</span><span style="text-align: left;">பண்ணியம்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), a sweet dish appearing like present day Paniyaram.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பல்வேறு பண்ணியந் தழீஇத்திரி விலைஞர்<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span>(Mathuraikanchi 405)</div>
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">காமர் உருவின் தாம் வேண்டு பண்ணியம் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Mathuraikanchi 422)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>சிறந்த தேஎத்து பண்ணியம் பகர்நரும் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Mathuraikanchi 506)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
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பல் வேறு பண்ணியம் கடை மெழுக்குறுப்ப <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Mathuraikanchi 661)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Appam and idiyappam (ஆப்பம் இடியப்பம்)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Appam is another sweet dish mentioned in Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="2515358527_938fce416e.jpg (500×332)" height="265" src="https://c1.staticflickr.com/4/3198/2515358527_938fce416e.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Appam and Idiyappam with side dish </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">According food historian</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">K.T. Achaya, in his book '</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">The Story of our Food,' both a</span>ppam (<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">ஆப்பம்)</span> (a circular pancake with a thick spongy center and lacy brown edges) and idiyappam (இடியாப்பம்) (steam cooked fine rice noodles) were <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">already known in India around 1st century A.D. Both appam and idiyappam were the dishes sold by </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">kaazhiyar and kuuviyar on the seashore. Sangam poems </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perumpanatruppadai, Mathuraikanchi and Silappathikaram refer to the dishes. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> K. T. Achaya considers that dosai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">தோசை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) was already in use in ancient Tamil country around the 1st century AD, as per references in the Sangam literature.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="idly1.jpg (244×205)" src="http://www.indiamapped.com/recipes-in-india/common/images/idly1.jpg" height="336" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Idly</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Idli (இட்லி)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Idli, a savory steam cake cooked using </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a batter consisting of fermented black lentils (de-husked) and rice,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> is the favorite dish through out South India and Sri Lanka. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">K.T. Achaya's </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">theory is that idli is relatively a recent introduction to India, and it might have actually come from Indonesia. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He notes that the word might derive from ‘iddalige’, first mentioned in </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Jain literary works in Kannada language - Vaddaradhane of Sivakotiacharya (920 AD) and Soopa Shastra of Mangarasa (1508 AD)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">But iddalige<b> </b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">was made from urad dhal batter only, which was neither fermented, nor steamed to fluffiness.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Rice fry (பொரி) and Rice Flake </span>(அவல்)<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="402691.jpeg (500×375)" src="http://www.in.all.biz/img/in/catalog/402691.jpeg" height="300" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Rice Fllakes</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Rice fry (பொரி) was in use during Sangam era. Sangam people cooked rice fry from boiled paddy. Ainkurunuru (ஐங் குறுநூறு) refers about a food prepared by mixing rice fry with milk (Ainkurunuru 53). Sangam literature also speak about rice flake (அவல்). Rice flake was produced by pounding the soaked boiled paddy. தீங்கரும்போ டவல் விருந்தோர் (Perumpanarruppadai). Akananuru poem 141 informs about pounding of rice flakes from bamboo rice (மூங்கில் நெல்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">பெருஞ் செய் நெல்லின் வாங்குகதிர் முறித்துப் பாசவல் இடிக்கும் பெருங் காழ் உலக்கை</span></div>
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<i>Dairy Products (பால்பொருட்கள்) </i></div>
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Sangam Tamils have consumed more dairy products such as milk, curd, buttermilk, white butter, cheese etc. </div>
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Salt was considered as a precious commodity during Sangam period. <span style="text-align: left;"> Paddy and salt were equally priced 'நெல்லும் உப்பும் நேராகும்.' Salt was produced by 'Umanar' (</span><span style="text-align: left;">உமணர்) community. </span>Coconut was in use in Tamilakam since from 1st century A.D. Travelers note also mention about the coconut export to Rome.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><i>Oven (அடுப்பு)</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span>Oven (அடுப்பு) was used Sangam era people to cook food. They have used firewood as fuel. Sangam literature do mention about oven (அடுப்பு)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ஆடுநனிமறந்த கோடுயர் அடுப்பு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puranānūru 164, Poet Perunthalai Sāthanar sang to Kumanan, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mushroom has grown in our tall stove</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பொருந்தாத் தெவ்வர் அரிந்தலை அடுப்பின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Puranānūru 372: 5, Poet Mānkudi Kilar sang to Thalaiyālankanathu Cheruvendra Pandiyan Neduncheliyan </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Enemies precious heads are severed and they appear like oven</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பொருந்தாத் தெவ்வர் – not-agreeable enemies, அருந்தலை அடுப்பின் – precious heads as stoves,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உமண்சாத்து இறந்த ஒழிகல் அடுப்பில்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akanānūru 119, Kudavāyil Keerathanar, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Warriors with strong bows cook meat on rock stoves abandoned by salt merchants</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தீஇல் அடுப்பின் அரங்கம் போல</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 137: 11, Uraiyur Muthukoothanar,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">your forehead has been ruined like the bare Kāviri islet </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Arangam) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">without stoves and cooking fire</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பல்கோட்டு அடுப்பில் பால்உலை இரீஇ (அக 141.15)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 141, Nakkeerar,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A small-bangled bride with fragrant thakaram paste in her soft hair joins other women and boils milk on a stove with many sides.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">உமண்உயிர்த்து இறந்த ஒழிகல் அடுப்பின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Akananuru 159: 4, Poet Āmur Kavuthaman Sathevanar,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Salt merchants, who sell white, grainy salt, while resting in a camp lit the rock stove and abandoned while leaving from there</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><i><u>Attil (அட்டில்)</u></i> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mounting vessels on an oven is known as cooking (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'அடுதல் '). Kitchen in Tamil is known as Attil </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(அட்டில்). or </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அடுக்களை </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ref: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தமிழர் உணவு, தொ. பரமசிவன்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">புனிற்றுநாய் குரைக்கும் புல்லெ னட்டில் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sirupanatruppadai 132 Nallur Nathathanar. sang on Oyman Nalliyakodan </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">In our kitchen, a female dog who had just given birth was barking in sorrow,</span></div>
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<u><i>Cooking Pot (குழிசி)</i></u> </div>
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Kuzhici means cooking pot or vessel.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இருங்கண் குழிசி கவிழ்ந்து இழுது மறப்பச்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 65, Poet Kalathalaiyar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">huge pots are placed upside down</span></div>
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மான் தடி புழுக்கிய புலவு நாறு குழிசி</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 168: 9, Poet Karuvur Kathapillai Sāthanar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They pour sweet elk milk with foam into an unwashed pot that smells of boiled deer</span></div>
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முரவு வாய் ஆடுறு குழிசி</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Purananuru 371: 6, Poet: Kalladanar sang to Pandiyan Thalaiyalankanathu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Carried the cooking pot with ruined mouth. </span></div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
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<li>Avvaiyars Kontrai Venthan nuggets in English. http://outshine-ga-ga.blogspot.in/2014/05/avvaiyars-kontrai-venthan-nuggets-in.html</li>
<li>Beef Eating in the Ancient Tamizhagam. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao (A paper presented during the 57th session of Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996). July 7, 2013. http://beef.sabhlokcity.com/2013/07/beef-eating-in-the-ancient-tamizhagam/</li>
<li>Beef Politics: How Beef Was Consumed in Ancient Tamil Nadu. Ramanathan S. October 7, 2015 https://www.thequint.com/india/2015/10/07/beef-politics-how-beef-was-consumed-in-ancient-tamil-nadu</li>
<li>Drinking habits in ancient India</li>
<li>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4776591/</li>
<li>Sangam Literature Wikipedia</li>
<li>Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள் https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/sangam-tamil-books/</li>
<li>இலக்கியமும் உணவுக் குறிப்புகளும் http://www.keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18907&Itemid=139</li>
<li>உணவுப் பண்பாடு. அ.கா.பெருமாள். http://keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12554&Itemid=139</li>
<li>உணவும் மதுவும் ப. சரவணன். http://www.tamilpaper.net/?p=8964</li>
<li>கார்த்திகை விழாவிற்கு வருவார்! பெரியண்ணன் சந்திரசேகரன். டிசம்பர் 2005. தென்றல் http://www.tamilonline.com/thendral/article.aspx?aid=913</li>
<li>சங்ககால சமையல் http://mazhimegam.blogspot.in/2014/01/1_30.html</li>
<li>சங்கச்சோலை http://sangacholai.in/ and http://sangacholai.in/Essays-1.7.html</li>
<li>சங்கத்தமிழரின் உணவுமரபு http://paniveli.blogspot.in/2014/10/blog-post.html</li>
<li>தமிழ் மக்களின் உணவு புலால் http://www.vinavu.com/2015/06/25/flourishing-meating-culture-in-tamil-history/</li>
<li>பண்டைய தமிழர் உணவுகள் http://vairamani-lakshmi.blogspot.in/2011/08/blog-post_8263.html</li>
<li>பண்டைய கால தமிழர்களின் உணவு முறை! http://suvanappiriyan.blogspot.in/2014/08/blog-post_7.html</li>
<li>திணை விளக்கம் Wikipedia</li>
<li>தொல்காப்பியம் காட்டும் உணவு http://www.valaitamil.com/food-about-tolkappiyam_9017.html</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-53761657272161946172017-06-05T06:12:00.002-07:002017-06-05T06:12:35.644-07:00Food in Sangam Literature 2: Introduction to Ethnic Culture<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<i><b> "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius." - A.K.Ramanujan on Sangam Literature.</b></i></div>
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Three small clay tablets, inscribed with complex 'cuneiform' script, comprise thirty-five Akkadian recipes with cooking instructions. The cuneiform tablets were inscribed during First Babylonian dynasty. These records stand as the most ancient cook-book in the world goes back as far as the second millennium B.C. These recipes were decoded and translated. Since it is difficult to decode the language of the Indus Valley Civilization, scholars find it difficult to name the dishes from this civilization. The main ingredients of their dishes were wheat and barley. With this nine more crops have been identified. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Babylonian Stew Recipes in Cuneiform Tablets</td></tr>
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Sangam Tamil literature and Sangam Tamil civilization unveil the sophisticated ancient Tamil culture. Sangam literature is a record of the history of ancient Tamilakam of about 600 years (300 B.C. to 300 A.D.). The Sangam Tamil poets have left these breathtaking poems for all of us to relish. The poems have abundant references about rich Sangam Tamil cuisine. Pathuppattu poems detail about the generosity of kings and chieftains and provide explicit descriptions of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food that they gave to the bards. Eight anthologies (Ettuthokai) poems provide pictorial details of the Sangam Tamil society. Purananuru and Patitrupattu poems detail the foods and drinks of ancient Tamil society. Akam poems or love poems (Akananuru, Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, and Kalittokai) also bring out graphic description of food and drinks. Sangam Tamil Cuisine has the unique style of preparing food. The cooking style is characterized by identifiable ingredients, cooking processes and proficiency. It is unique and associated with Sangam civilization.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Era culture have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The six tastes of Tamils are 1. Sweet 2. pungent (mirchi) 3.bitter 4. Salt. 5. sour. and 6. astringent. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Over the years Sangam Era gastronomy has greatly evolved and they have used characteristic spices and the combination of flavors unique to Sangam period. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Sangam Era culinary had unique flavors, the tangy twist and the plethora of vegetables were used in their recipes. The gastronomy of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam Tamil cuisine was dominated by rice, lentils, tamarind, coconut and curry leaves. Rice was the major staple food of most of the Sangam Tamil people. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Cooked rice was known in different names in Sangam literature. Choodamani Nigandu (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">சூடாமணி நிகண்டு</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, Tamil thesaurus lists out related terms: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Atisil (அடிசில்), Amalai (</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman';">அமலை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), Amizhthu (அமிழ்து), Annam (அன்னம்), Arru (அற்று), Asanam (அசனம்), Ayini (அயினி), Avi (அவி), Avizh (அவிழ்), Azhini (அழினி), Othanam (ஓதனம்), Un (ஊன்), Una (உணா), Undi (உண்டி), Kondri (கொன்றி), Kuzh (கூழ்), Madai (மடை), Mural (மூரல்), Misai (மிசை), Mithavai (மிதவை), Nimiral (நிமிரல்), Palitham (பாளிதம்), Parukkai (பருக்கை), Patham (பதம்), Pathu (பாத்து), Pomman (பொம்மன்), Ponagam (போனகம்), Puka (புகா), Punkam (புன்கம்), Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்), Saru (சரு), Sondri (சொன்றி), Soru (சோறு), Thori (தோரி), Thurru (துற்று) and Valsi (வல்சி). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They were by no means vegetarians. Therefore the food </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">had a wide range of vegetarian and non-vegetarian delicacies.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Saint. </span>Tiruvalluvar, </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tamil philosophy is "let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food." </span>Tirukkural, composed by <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tiruvalluvar, the most celebrated Tamil poet-saint, is considered as </span>unparallel, universal scripture. It comprises of 1330 aphorisms in couplets organized in 133 chapters under three heads -- Virtue, Wealth and Love. <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tiruvalluvar’s couplets on Medicine ( 95th chapter) are highly aphoristic:</span> "n<span style="text-align: center;">o medicine is necessary for him who eats after assuring (himself) that what he has (already) eaten has been digested." </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மருந்தென வேண்டாவாம் யாக்கைக்கு அருந்தியது</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அற்றது போற்றி உணின்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Tirukkural (</span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">திருக்குறள்)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> 942: Poet Tiruvalluvar)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">No need of medicine to heal your body's pain,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">If, what you ate before digested well, you eat again.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Thamilakam </b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">"The word Thamilakam was used to refer to the entire Tamil speaking region which corresponded to the territory of South Indian royalties of Sangam period (3rd century B.C. - 3rd century A.D.) as well as the modern south India comprising territories of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as parts of Sri Lanka. Historians referred to the 'whole of the Ancient Tamil country' as the single cultural area, though many Tamil kingdoms existed here within its boundaries." </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'Tamiḻakam' aka. 'Tamizhakam' (Tamil தமிழகம்), a Tamil word was first coined in Purananuru, poem 168.18, a Sangam Tamil poetic work.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வையக வரைப்பில் தமிழகம் கேட்ப (Purananuru 168:18)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வடவேங்கடந் தென்குமரி ஆயிடைத்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தமிழ் கூறு நல்லுலகம் (Tolkappiyam) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The other classical references include:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'இமிழ் கடல் வேலித் தமிழகம் விளங்க (பதிற்றுப்பத்து, இரண்டாம் பத்து, பதிகம் : Pathirruppaththu, Second Tens, Hymn 5</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'இமிழ் கடல் வரைப்பில் தமிழகம் அறிய (சிலப்பதிகாரம், அரங்கேற்றுகாதை Silapathikaram, Arangerru Kathai 38 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">' சம்புத் தீவினுள் தமிழக மருங்கில் (Manimekalai, 17:62) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Dating of Sangam Period</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">As per Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamilakam. Several </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">historians and scholars consider the First two "Sangam Age" since the mythical or traditional dating are not in accordance with the Historical dating. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Scholars find many proof </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">that </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the bulk of the literature was written from 150 B.C. to 300 A.D. However literature was compiled </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">only during the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Sangam literature do not include even a single reference about Pallavas who established their realm around 300 A.D. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sangam poems provides vivid account of foreign trade i.e., particularly with Greece, and we understand about their maritime trade, port cities of Tamilakam, arrival of huge ships and Roman gold coins. The maritime trade prevailed till 3rd century A.D. The Greek and Roman writers such as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Periplus (70 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A.D.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), Pliny (78 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A.D.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), and Ptolemy (140 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">A.D.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) have recorded pictorial description about the seashore of Tamilakam, port towns, inland towns and capital cities. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Historians constantly apply </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Gajabahu synchronism, the chronological device, to establish the date in Tamil history. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Silappatikaram, the Tamil epic, mentioned about </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Gajabahu (</span><span style="text-align: center;">கயவாகு)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, the Sinhalese king of Lanka who </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">reigned from 173 to 195 A.D.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> and therefore he is considered as the </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">contemporary of the Chera king Senguttuvan. Gajabahu </span>is said to have attended the coronation of the Chera king Senguttuvan.<br />
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அரும் சிறை நீங்கிய ஆரிய மன்னரும்,</div>
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பெரும் சிறைக்கோட்டம் பிரிந்த மன்னரும்,</div>
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குடகக் கொங்கரும், மாளுவ வேந்தரும்,</div>
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<span style="color: red;">கடல் சூழ் இலங்கைக் கயவாகு வேந்தனும்</span>,</div>
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‘எம் நாட்டு ஆங்கண் இமையவரம்பனின்</div>
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நல்நாள் செய்த நாள் அணி வேள்வியில்</div>
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வந்து ஈக’ என்றே வணங்கினர் வேண்ட </div>
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(Silappatikaram, Varantaru Kathai 157-163)</div>
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Iravatham Mahadevan was able to read clearly the names of three generations of Chera rulers mentioned in the Sangam work Patirrupattau in the inscriptions found in Pugalur and ascertained the date as 200 A.D. <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The period of the Sangam Age can be fixed roughly between the third century B.C. and the third century A.D.</span><br />
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman';">Structure of </b><b style="font-family: 'times new roman';">Sangam Poems </b><br />
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The poems belonging to the Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets (including 30 poetesses and 102 poems by anonymous authors) and constitutes a total of 2381 poems (26,350 lines of poems). Both men and women from various professions and classes of society including kings, noble men, learned men, doctors, businessmen, teachers, metal smiths, goldsmiths, cattle herders etc have become poets. The poems were gathered at a later date into various anthologies, edited and the anthologists and annotators assigned colophons. Tolkappiyam composed by Tolkappiyar is considered as the earliest Tamil grammar work. The text also provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam era. The corpus of Sangam literature comprise the 'Major Eighteen Anthology Series' (Pathinenmelkanakku - பதினென்மேல்க்கணக்கு) which includes The Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai - எட்டுத்தொகை) and the Ten Idylls (Pattupattu - பத்துப்பாட்டு) and the 'Minor Eighteen Anthology Series' (Pathinenkilkanakku - பதினென்கீழ்க்கணக்கு). The Eight Anthologies consist of eight books – Ainkurunuru (ஐங்குறுநூறு) - 500 poems, Natrinai (நற்றிணை) - 400 poems, Akanaooru (அகநானுறு) - 400 poems, Purananooru (புறநானுறு) - 400 poems, Kuruntokai (குறுந்தொகை) - 400 poems, Kalittogai (கலித்தொகை) - 150 poems, Paripadal (பரிபாடல்) - 22 poems and Patirruppattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) - 80 poems.<br />
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The Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Tirumurugatruppadai (திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை) poet Nakirar includes 317 lines, Porunaratruppadai (பொருநராற்றுப்படை) poet <span style="text-align: start;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Mudathamakkaniyar includes 250 lines</span></span>, Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை) poet Nathathanar includes 269 lines, Perumpanatruppadai (பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை) poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar includes 500 lines, Mullaippattu (முல்லைப்பாட்டு) poet Napputanar includes 103 lines, Nedunalvadai (நெடுநல்வாடை) poet Nakirar (son of Madurai Kanakkayanar) includes 188 lines, Mathuraikkanji (மதுரைக்காஞ்சி) poet Mangudi Marutanar includes 583 lines, Kurinjippatttu (குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு) poet Kapilar includes 261 lines, Pattinappalai (பட்டினப்பாலை) poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar includes 301 lines and Malaipadukatam (மலைபடுகடாம்) poet Perunkousikanar includes 583 lines. The corpus of Sangam literature slipped out of popular memory soon thereafter. It was the scholars, S. V. Damodaram Pillai and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, who rediscovered them in the 19th century.<br />
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<i><b>Akam and Puram Poems</b></i></div>
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Sangam poems are categorized in Tolkappiyam by their themes into two categories:<br />
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<u>Akam Poems ("inner field" themes)</u>: Poems include highly structured love poems and they relate to human or personal aspects <span style="text-align: left;">like love and relationships which are expressed in allegorical and abstract manner. </span> About 78% of the poems are in the Akam Tinai (அகத்திணை).<br />
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<u>Puram ("outer field" themes)</u>: Poems include heroic poems on war, death, personal virtues, the ferocity and glory of kings, and the poverty of poets and the purview or the range of interest include heroism, courage, ethics, benevolence, philanthropy, social life, and customs. Poems under this category is known as Puram Tinai (புறத்திணை)<br />
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The division into akam and puram is not rigid. </div>
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<i><b>Tinai or Poetical Mode or Theme</b></i><br />
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Sangam literature employs a kind of poetical mode or theme called <b>Tinai</b> (திணை). Akam and Puram poems have different poetical mode or theme called Tinai (திணை).<br />
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<u>Akam Tinai (அகத்திணை)</u> is a taxonomy of culturally defined time, space, nature and human nature. A tinai (திணை<u>)</u> comprise the absolute poetical landscape (முதற்பொருள்); a precise or explicit time (பொழுது), topographic place (நிலம்), season in which the poem is set; and also includes background elements distinctive of that landscape i.e., flora and fauna, inhabitants, occupation, deities, musical note, musical instrument, and social organization.<br />
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<i>Five Landscapes</i><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="600px-Thinai_en.svg.png (600×495)" height="330" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Thinai_en.svg/600px-Thinai_en.svg.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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The landscapes are named after flowers and trees and associated with a certain kind of land. They include Kurinji (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), forests; marutam (மருதம்), agricultural land; neital (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; palai (பாலை) deserts or wasteland. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, two more tinais are employed i.e., unsolicited love (கைக்கிளை) and unsuited love (பெருந்திணை). The Sangam poets have employed Akam tinais to achieve the desired poetic effect, and it is essential to understand them, to appreciate Sangam poetry. The poet also employs metaphors and similes in his poem to match the elements in the particular landscape.<br />
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<i>Five Subjects in Akam Poems</i><br />
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Akam poems have <b>five subjects</b> such as 1. Lovers union is the main theme of Kurinji tinai. It is pre-marital (புணர்தலும் புணர்தல் நிமித்தமும்); 2. Anxious waiting is the theme of Neital tinai. It could be pre-marital or post-marital (இரங்கலும் இரங்கல் நிமித்தமும் (வருந்துதல்); 3. Separation is the theme of Palai. It could be pre-marital or post-marital (பிரிதலும் பிரிதல் நிமித்தமும்); 4. Patient waiting is the theme of Mullai. It could be pre-marital or post-marital (இருத்தலும் இருத்தல் நிமித்தமும்) (காத்து இருத்தல்); 5. Infidelity is the theme of Marutham. It is post-marital (ஊடலும் ஊடல் நிமித்தமும்).<br />
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<i>Six Seasons (பெரும்பொழுது) and Six parts of the day</i><br />
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<i><u>Six seasons</u></i> - two months each - (பெரும்பொழுது) 1. Spring (இளவேனில்) Mid Apr - Mid Jun; <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>2. Summer (முதுவேனில்) Mid Jun - Mid Aug, 3. Monsoon (கார்) Mid Aug - Mid Oct, 4. Autumn (குளிர்) Mid Oct - Mid Dec, 5. Winter (முன்பனி) Mid Dec - Mid Feb and 6. Prevernal (பின்பனி) Mid Feb - Mid Apr;<br />
<i><u>Six parts of the day</u></i> - four hours each - (சிறுபொழுது) 1. dawn (வைகறை), 2. forenoon (காலை), 3. noon (நண்பகல்), 4. afternoon (ஏற்பாடு), 5. evening (மாலை), and 6. night (யாமம்).<br />
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<i>Puram Tinais</i><br />
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Puram poems employ <b>seven tinais</b> or themes based on activity and have been named after flowers: i.e., Vetchi (வெட்சி), Vanji (வஞ்சி), Ulignai (உழிஞை), Thumpai (தும்பை), Vakai (வாகை), Kanji (காஞ்சி) and Padan (பாடாண்). The Tamil kings and chieftains wore different flowers in the battlefield to denote different heroic activities. While invading an enemy's territory the soldiers wore Vanchi (வஞ்சி) flowers and enter into the territory for cattle raids. While raiding the cattle they wore Vetchi (வெட்சி) and wore Ulignai (உழிஞை) flower when the cattle is under siege. They wore Thumpai (தும்பை) flower while engaged in a battle. The victorious soldiers wore Thumpai (தும்பை). Kanji (காஞ்சி) flower indicates tragedy. Padan (பாடாண்) is used to praise the chieftain. The Puram tinai poems are spoken by the poet himself, and frequently associated with real persons, places and events in history.</div>
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<b>Hospitality in Sangam Poems</b></div>
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Cuisine is also influenced by regional food laws i.e., moral codes, social codes and religious codes. Sangam Tamil culture valued that feeding everyone, with a smile to those who comes home, as the most important domestic duty of every householder. <span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: முத்துக்கமலம்</td></tr>
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Sangam literature is a record of Tamil Nadu history of about 500 – 600 years. According to A.K. Ramanujan, “These poem are ‘classical,’ i.e., early, ancient; they are also ‘classics,’ i.e., works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization” In Tamil "Virunthu" (விருந்து) means guests. It also means "feast." Tamils are one of the most hospitable people for anybody in the world. Welcoming guests and strangers is part of Tamil culture. It is apt to quote Tolkappiyam and few Sangam poems here:<br />
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“விருந்தே தானும்</div>
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புதுவது புனைந்த யாப்பின் மேற்றே” (Tolkappiyam.Poem.231)</div>
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Sangam Poems<br />
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யாதும் ஊரே ; யாவரும் கேளிர் ;</div>
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தீதும் நன்றும் பிறர்தர வாரா ;</div>
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(Purananuru 192; Poet Kaniyan Poonkundranar)</div>
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(Any village, we can live in. Everyone is our kin. Evil and goodness will never come from others.)</div>
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Kadalul Mayntha Ilamveruvaluthi, the Pandyan king died in the ocean. There was maritime trade during his reign. The Tamil kings owned ships and traded with many countries. This was the only poem that this king wrote. Nectar of Indiran is known for longevity and even if noble get the nectar of Indiran, they will not drink it alone. They will give up their lives for renown yet will not consent if it comes with dishonor.</div>
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உண்டால் அம்ம இவ்வுலகம் இந்திரர்</div>
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அமிழ்தம் இயைவதாயினும் இனிது எனத்</div>
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தமியர் உண்டலும் இலரே முனிவிலர்</div>
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துஞ்சலும் இலர் பிறர் அஞ்சுவது அஞ்சிப்</div>
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புகழ் எனின் உயிரும் கொடுக்குவர் பழியெனின்</div>
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உலகுடன் பெறினும் கொள்ளலர் அயர்விலர்</div>
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அன்ன மாட்சி அனையராகித்</div>
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தமக்கென முயலா நோன் தாள்</div>
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பிறர்க்கென முயலுநர் உண்மையானே.</div>
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(Purananuru 182, Kadalul Mayntha Ilamveruvaluthi)</div>
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This world exists because of men who, even if they were to get the nectar of Indiran, will not drink it alone knowing that it is sweet, men with no hatred, without laziness, afraid of what others fear, will give up their lives for fame, but will not accept fame if it comes with dishonor, even if they were to gain the world, men who have no regrets, and with noble virtues, who exert their power, not for themselves but for others!</div>
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வல்லார் ஆயினும் வல்லுநர் ஆயினும்</div>
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வருந்தி வந்தோர் மருங்கு நோக்கி</div>
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அருள வல்லை ஆகுமதி ....</div>
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Purananuru 27, Poet Uraiyur Muthukannan Sathanar sang to Cholan Nalankilli</div>
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Even if they have talents or not, please shower your graces rapidly on those who come with sorrow,</div>
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Poet Mosi Keeranar establishes the place of the king in Tamil Sangam society. He is the lifeline than the rice and water. </div>
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நெல்லும் உயிர் அன்றே நீரும் உயிர் அன்றே</div>
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மன்னன் உயிர்த்தே மலர்தலை உலகம்</div>
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Puranauru 186; Poet Mosi Keeranar,</div>
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Rice is not life! Water is not life!</div>
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The king is life for this wide world!</div>
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அறநெறி முதற்றே அரசின் கொற்றம்</div>
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Purananuru 55, Poet Mathurai Maruthan Ilanakanar sang to Pandiyan Ilavanthikaippalli Thunjiya Nanmaran,</div>
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Esteemed righteousness is the foremost cause for real victory.<br />
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“விருந்தின் மன்னர் அருங்கலம் தெறுப்ப,<br />
வேந்தனும் வெம்பகை தணிந்தனன்”<br />
Akananuru 54, Matroor Kilar Makanar Kotrankotranar,<br />
The new kings have given tributes and our king’s great rage has ebbed.</div>
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“நெல் பல பொலிக! பொன் பெரிது சிறக்க!”</div>
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Ainkurunūru 1, Poet Orampokiyar, </div>
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May paddy fields yield rich harvest! May the country flourish!</div>
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“விளைக வயலே! வருக இரவலர்!” </div>
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Ainkurunūru 2, Poet Orampokiyar, </div>
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May fields yield harvest! May solicitors come for alms!</div>
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“பால்பல ஊறுக! பகடுபல சிறக்க!” </div>
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Ainkurunūru 3, Poet Orampokiyar, </div>
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May milk flow abundantly! May bulls thrive!</div>
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“பசி இல் ஆகுக! பிணிசேண் நீங்குக!” </div>
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Ainkurunūru 5, Poet Orampokiyar, </div>
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May there be no hunger! May diseases go far away!</div>
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“அல்லி லாயினும் விருந்துவரின் உவக்கும்</div>
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முல்லை சான்ற கற்பின்</div>
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மெல்லியல் குறுமகள்” </div>
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Natrinai 142: 9-11, Idaikkadanar, </div>
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Even if it is night time, she’ll welcome guests happily, the delicate young lady with virtue suited to wear mullai blossoms.</div>
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Tiruvalluvar considers that the "chief of all (the virtues) which authors have summed up, is the partaking of food that has been shared with others, and the preservation of the mainfold life of other creatures."</div>
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பகுத்துண்டு பல்லுயிர் ஓம்புதல் நூலோர் </div>
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தொகுத்தவற்றுள் எல்லாந் தலை.</div>
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(Tirukkural 322; Poet Tiruvalluvar)</div>
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Let those that need partake your meal; guard every-thing that lives; </div>
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This the chief and sum of lore that hoarded wisdom gives.</div>
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According to the poet "the whole design of living in the domestic state and laying up (property) is (to be able) to exercise the benevolence of hospitality." He believes that "the advantages of benevolence cannot be measured; the measure (of the virtue) of the guests (entertained) is the only measure." He is also sure that goddess Lakshmi with joyous mind shall dwell in the house of that man who, with cheerful countenance, entertains the good as guests"<br />
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<b>Spurning Meat</b> (புலால் மறுத்தல்)<br />
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Non vegetarianism was the main food habit of Sangam Tamils. Rice was consumed as the staple food in Sangam literature. Sangam literature provide abundant information about eating of the meats of <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Eel (விலங்கு மீன் இறைச்சி ), Murrel fish (Channa striata) (வரால் மீன் இறைச்சி), Mackerel fish (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அயிலை மீன் இறைச்சி), S</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">word fish (வாளை மீன் இறைச்சி), Shark (சுறா இறைச்சி), Tortoise (ஆமைக்கறி), Crab (நண்டுக் கறி), Fowl (காட்டுக்கோழி), Quail (காடை </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman';">கறி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), Partridge (கவுதாரி </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman';">கறி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), rams (செம்மறி ஆடு </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman';">இறைச்சி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), Veal (பசுங்கன்று இறைச்சி), Ox (எருது இறைச்சி), Bison (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">கடமான் இறைச்சி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), porcupine (முள்ளம்பன்றி இறைச்சி), pork (பன்றியிறைச்சி), iguana (உடும்பு இறைச்சி), rabbit (முயல் இறைச்சி), venison (மான் இறைச்சி) etc.</span> They cooked the flesh with ghee and spices. Sangam people inhabited in five varied landscapes and their food habits were shaped by their surrounding environment. Ayars and Idayars enjoyed their dairy products. Uzhavars (farmers) ate roasted flesh rams, fowl, fish, crabs etc., Fishermen consumed fish and drank pottage rice and toddy. Hunters ate venison, iguana and pigs. Brahmin ascetics preferred non vegetarian diets and avoided alcoholic drinks. However Sangam Tamils did not make any differentiation between vegetarian and non-vegetarian food in those days. Sangam literature has employed several words to refer meat varieties: Un (meat), Thu, Thasai (flesh), Thadi (steak), Kurai (large meat / fish slice), Ninam (fat), Pulal (dried meat with smell / dried salt-fish), Vidakkudai, and Muri (bone removed from flesh).<br />
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There was no religious restriction and religion never played any role in the food habits of Sangam Tamils. In fact beef eating was prevalent during Sangam period. Their philosophy was that <i>‘man has every right to eat anything.’</i> Sangam Tamils were faithful to the concept of the “survival of the fittest” in accordance to the principles of natural selection and evolution.<br />
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The civilization of ancient India and ancient Greece are the source for vegetarianism. Vegetarianism is the theory and practice of not eating meat or fish, especially for moral, religious, or health reasons. Vegetarian is a person who does not eat meat or fish, and sometimes other animal products, especially for moral, religious, or health reasons. Vegetarian diet focuses on cereals, pulses, spices, vegetables, and fruits. Many vegetarians give up meat since they have compassion for animals. Nonviolence (ahimsa) towards animals influenced the food habits in ancient India. However Vedic religion in ancient India allowed eating some kinds of meats. Also the religion promoted vegetarianism. According to Manusmriti (a code book for Vedic religion) expresses that, ‘<i>there is no sin in eating meat... but abstention brings great rewards</i>.’<br />
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Jain and Buddhist religions exhibited the principle of nonviolence toward animals and prohibited eating meat as early as the 6th century BC. It is learned that Bhadrabahu (433 – 357 century B.C.), the Jain monk proceeded to Shravanabelagula (Karnataka, India) along with Chandra Gupta Maurya (reign: 321–298 B.C.). Later they further travelled towards south to Tamil Nadu to spread Jainism. Preaching of Jainism concentrated around Madurai. Evidences of Jainism in Tamil Nadu can be seen as early as 1st century BC. Sittanavasal Cave near Pudukottai Jainism and Buddism was once followed widely in Tamilnadu. Kancheepuram, Thirunelveli, Ramnathapuram and Madurai were important places where a majority of Jains and Buddist lived.<br />
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Emperor Ashoka (268 – 232 B.C) and his son Mahinda were responsible for spreading Buddhism in Tamil Nadu during (400 – 650 A.D). Archaeologists have discovered ancient ruins of a 4th-5th century Buddhist monastery, a Buddha statue, and a Buddhapada (footprint of the Buddha) at Pallavenswaram, near Poompukar. Nagapattinam, a Chola port town finds a place in Buddhist Historical text in Burmese language (3rd Century B.C). The town was also a Buddhist centre till 5th century A.D.<br />
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Both Jainism and Buddhism followed the path of ahimsa and brought strong influence on nonviolence towards animals as well as vegetarianism. The habit of meat eating was discouraged and therefore non-vegetarianism was sidelined. Vegetarian food was known as ‘Arugatha food (ஆருகத உணவு).’Arugatham was another name of Jainism. Also there were categorization vegetarianism and non-vegetarianism in the food habits of ancient Tamils. Vegetarianism slowly formed part of religious practice.<br />
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The Saivite religion had its origin only around 7th century A.D. Practises animal sacrifice were prevalent in Saivite religion. Over period of time the religious sect evolved as the religion emphasizing vegetarianism. Bakti Movement brought this transformation. Thevaram Trio and Nayanmars onset attacks on Jainism and Buddhism and propagated religious conversion of Jains and Buddhists to Hinduism. At last vegetarianism was accepted as Saivite religious practice.<br />
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Poet Saint Tiruvalluvar was a great advocate of Vegetarianism. He abhors the idea of killing animals for consumption of meat. It is the duty of the householders as well as ascetics to practice vegetarianism. He has composed 10 couplets on ‘Spurning of Meat.’<br />
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Tirukural 251 well explains that, one cannot be gracious and humane if he feeds his flesh with another being's flesh.<br />
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தன்ஊன் பெருக்கற்குத் தான்பிறிது ஊன்உண்பான்</div>
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எங்ஙனம் ஆளும் அருள். (Tirukural 251)</div>
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What graciousness can one command</div>
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Who feeds his flesh by flesh gourmand</div>
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Tirukural 260 advocates vegetarianism on behalf of all living beings. He says that “all that lives will press palms together in prayerful adoration of those who refuse to slaughter and savor meat.”<br />
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கொல்லான் புலாலை மறுத்தானைக் கைகூப்பி</div>
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எல்லா உயிரும் தொழும்.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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All lives shall lift their palms to him</div>
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who eats not flesh nor kills with whim.</div>
<b>Alcoholism</b><br />
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The distillation of intoxicants was known to ancient India as early as Rig Vedic period. The drink contained substantial amount of ethanol (informally called alcohol). There were two kinds of drinks i.e., Somapana and Surapana which were used by the Indo-Aryan settlers. Ramayana and Mahabharata also mention the habit of drinking. During the reign of Chandra Gupta Maurya, liquor saloons existed under the control of state. Kautilya in his Arthashastra recorded the 'Abkari' policy of the state. Alcohol is a a depressant which in low doses causes euphoria, reduced anxiety, and sociability and in higher doses causes intoxication (drunkenness), stupor and unconsciousness.<br />
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Sangam Tamils including kings, warriors, poets, bards and others drank intoxicants (alcohol) to socialize, celebrate and relax. Alcoholic drinks were in abundant supply and were consumed by all classes of people. Consumption of intoxicants (alcohol) played an important social role in Sangam Tamil cultures. Undattu (உண்டாட்டு) is one of the themes of Puram Tinais (புறத்திணைகள்) and it forms part of Vetchi tinai (வெட்சித் தினை). There are five songs in Purananuru.<br />
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The alcoholic drinks were known as toddy (கள்) or palm wine. Toddy was brewed from the sap of the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) and coconut palms (cocos nucifera). இவற்குஈந்து உண்மதி, கள்ளே (Puranauru 290 Poet Avvaiyar). Different kinds of alcoholic drinks such as ariyal (அரியல்), kantharam (கந்தாரம்), madhu (மது), mattu (மட்டு), naravu (நறவு), pizhi (பிழி), theral (தேறல்), topi (டொப்பி) and veri (வேரி) were used during Sangam period. Topi was obtained by fermenting rice and other cereals <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">in “strong mouthed jars” for two days after which they yielded a highly-flavoured wine</span>. Some varieties were obtained from fruits like jack fruit. Wine was also brewed from honey in the mountainous terrains and was matured underground in tightly-lidded jars.<br />
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தேறல் உண்ணும் மன்னே.(Purananuru 298)</div>
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The king gives unfiltered toddy</div>
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தேள் கடுப்பு அன்ன நாள் படு தேறல்</div>
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Aged toddy as strong as the sting of a scorpion</div>
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நிலம் புதைப் பழுனிய மட்டின் தேறல்</div>
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புல் வேய்க் குரம்பைக் குடிதொறும் பகர்ந்து</div>
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(Purananuru 120, Poet Kapilar)</div>
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in every settlement, in the huts roofed with grass, they share the clarified toddy that has been buried and matured in liquor jars,</div>
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குறி இறைக் குரம்பைக் குறவர் மாக்கள்</div>
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வாங்கு அமைப் பழுனிய தேறல் மகிழ்ந்து</div>
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வேங்கை முன்றில் குரவை அயரும்</div>
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(Purananuru 129, Poet Uraiyur Enicheri Mudamosiyar sang for Ay Andiran)</div>
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Mountain dwellers living in huts with narrow eaves drink aged liquor and perform kuravai dances in the front yards of their houses near vengai trees.</div>
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யவனர் நன்கலம் தந்த தண்கமழ் தேறல். (Purananuru 56 Poet Mathurai Kanakkayanar Makanar Nakkeeranar sang to Pandiyan Ilavanthikaippalli Thunjiya Nanmaran)</div>
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fragrant and cool wine brought in fine ships by the Greeks</div>
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Large Toddy (பெரிய கள்) and Small Toddy (சிறிய கள்) indicated measuring units of alcohol. <br />
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சிறியகட் பெறினே, எமக்கீயும்; மன்னே!</div>
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பெரிய கட் பெறினே,</div>
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யாம் பாடத், தான்மகிழ்ங்து உண்ணும்.</div>
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(Purananuru 235, Poet Avvaiyar sang about Athiyaman Neduman Anji)</div>
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If he had a little toddy, he would give it to us. Not any longer. If he had abundant toddy, he would give it to us and happily drink the leftover</div>
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The most prominent protagonist of abstinence and powerfully expressed is Tiruvalluvar in his Thirukural (திருக்குறள்) in the chapter 92 on Not Drinking Palm Wine (கள்ளுண்ணாமை).<br />
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Tiruvalluvar advocates not to drink. "Let no liquor be drunk; if it is desired, let it be drunk by those who care not for esteem of the great."</div>
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உண்ணற்க கள்ளை உணில்உண்க சான்றோரான்</div>
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எண்ணப் படவேண்டா தார். (Tirukural 922)</div>
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Drink not inebriating drought. Let him count well the cost. Who drinks, by drinking, all good men's esteem is lost.</div>
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Tiruvalluvar pities those who pay and drink and lose consciousness and ranks them as the most ignorant.</div>
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கையறி யாமை உடைத்தே பொருள்கொடுத்து</div>
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மெய்யறி யாமை கொளல்.(Tirukural 925)</div>
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With gift of goods who self-oblivion buys, Is ignorant of all that man should prize.</div>
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Tiruvalluvar considers that those who sleeps resembles the dead; (likewise) those who drink are no other than poison-eaters.<br />
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துஞ்சினார் செத்தாரின் வேறல்லர் எஞ்ஞான்றும்</div>
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நஞ்சுண்பார் கள்ளுண் பவர்.(Tirukural 926)</div>
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Sleepers are as the dead, no otherwise they seem; Who drink intoxicating droughts, they poison quaff, we deem.</div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Absolute Astronomy Sangam http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Sangam</li>
<li>Beef Eating in the Ancient Tamizhagam. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao (A paper presented during the 57th session of Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996). July 7, 2013</li>
<li>Cuisine Wikipedia</li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">Drinking habits in ancient India</span><div style="text-align: left;">
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4776591/</div>
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</li>
<li>Early Prohibition Phase in Tamil Country. http://aygrt.isrj.org/UploadedData/8105.pdf</li>
<li>Gajabahu synchronism Wikipedia</li>
<li>History of vegetarianism Wikipedia</li>
<li>Indian food http://quatr.us/india/food/</li>
<li>Myth of Tamil Sangams https://controversialhistory.blogspot.in/search?updated-max=2007-07-11T03:00:00-07:00&max-results=5&start=80&by-date=false</li>
<li>Sangam Literature Wikipedia</li>
<li>Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள் https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/sangam-tamil-books/</li>
<li>Sangam Period in South Indian History: Part I Tamilakam, Sangam Period and Sangam Literature. Muthusamy R. Know Your Heritage. http://know-your-heritage.blogspot.in/2013/12/sangam-period-in-south-indian-history_8.html</li>
<li>Sources of ancient Tamil History Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_of_ancient_Tamil_history</li>
<li>Tamil Cuisine Wikipedia</li>
<li>Thirukkural Abstinence from Meat. http://tamilvegan.blogspot.in/p/tamil-veganism-blogen-gbtranslations.html</li>
<li>What is sangam age? https://www.quora.com/What-is-sangam-age</li>
<li>What is Toddy Drink? http://www.mostinside.com/advantages-disadvantages-of-toddy-drink/</li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">உணவும் மதுவும் ப. சரவணன். http://www.tamilpaper.net/?p=8964</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">தமிழர் பண்பாட்டில் விருந்தோம்பல். மா. பத்மபிரியா. முத்துக்கமலம்</span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="text-align: justify;">திணை விளக்கம் Wikipedia</span></li>
</ol>
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<b>YouTube</b></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TMKYrFyzTDk?list=PL_rMOaPwK0GINJG7VIB9AoyF0RjOQX2Ix" width="560"></iframe>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-33166963246241212282017-06-03T23:44:00.003-07:002017-06-03T23:44:55.334-07:00Food in Sangam Literature 1: Evolution of Man and His Early Civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Food is indispensable for human survival.</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> </span>Much attention is being paid to what people ate during the evolutionary stages and it serves as a guideline to what we should eat today. Food experts say modern humans should eat from a Stone Age menu. After examining the diets of ancient hunter-gatherers, the food experts concluded that 73 percent of these primitive societies derived more than half of their calories from meat, </div>
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Since 'food history' focuses cultural, economic, environmental and sociological impacts of food, the field is interdisciplinary in its scope. On the other hand 'culinary history' is a traditional field and it is distinct from 'food history.' Culinary history focuses on the origin and recreation of ancient cuisine. Food historians view food as an essential elements of culture, reflecting the social and economic structure of the society.</div>
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Human evolution is the evolutionary process of change by which anatomically modern humans originated from ape-like ancestors. Before Homo sapiens evolved, our hominin (an early form of human or any taxonomic tribe) ancestors foraged for millions of years. Hominins relied on food available from nature and gathered plants, small animals, birds, and insects. They were scavenging animals killed by other predators and also resorted to primitive hunting. Control of fire is considered as the significant step made by hominins. Cooked food brought amazing transformation: it provided more nutrition, reduced chewing time, and constricted him with smaller intestines and, as a result, cooked food contributed to brain development. Cooking and primitive agriculture provided social living. Evolved human improved taste in their cooking. Specific practice or manner of cooking food brought the 'art of cooking' or 'culinary art.' Sangam Tamil Cuisine is one such culinary art. "Gastronomy governs the whole life of man."</div>
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This five part series aims to explicate the Food in Sangam literature. </div>
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<i>Food in Sangam literature 1: Evolution of Man and His Early Civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley</i>.</div>
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<i>Food in Sangam literature 2: Introduction to Ethnic Culture. </i> </div>
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<i>Food in Sangam literature 3: Rice and Millets in Sangam Tamil Cuisine.</i><br />
<i>Food in Sangam literature 4: Meat in Sangam Tamil Cuisine.</i><br />
<i>Food in Sangam literature 5: Food Habits in Five Sangam Landscapes.</i><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b>Early Human: </b></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>The Evolution of Foraging</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Foraging means acquisition of food by </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">scavenging fruits, vegetables, small animals, birds, insects (killed by other predators) or </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">hunting as well as fishing. The word foraging can be used interchangeably with “hunting and gathering.” </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Humans are not the only creatures who forage; many animals do too. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Behavioral ecology deals with the theory of foraging and it concentrates the foraging behavior of human as well as animals in response to the environment in which the human or animal lives. Solitary foraging takes place when early human or animals forage by themselves. Group foraging, on the other hand, happens when early human or animals keep foraging together and it is highly beneficial for the group members. Early humans were adequately skilled to accumulate knowledge and communicate the same </span>verbally or non-verbally either to the fellow humans or to younger generations and functioned together cooperatively.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Australopithecus is a</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">n extinct genus of the hominid family that lived in Africa from about three to two million years ago. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Australopithecus</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> means “southern ape.” It was </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species and ancestor of humans. It was originally a herbivore. Between 2.5 and 2 million B.C., ancient human was forced by drought and commenced eating some meat to supplement their diet. They foraged by scavenging small crawling animals and insects. Scavenging was the only means of foraging and not necessarily by hunting initially. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Homo habilis (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">meaning 'handy man') </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">is considered as the earliest 'great ape' type creature. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Homo-habilis is generally accepted as the earliest member of the genus Homo and it</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">is now extinct. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The species is following Australopithecus and preceding Homo-erectus. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The earliest Homo species inhabited </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">parts of sub-Saharan Africa about 2 million to 1.5 million years ago. It is believed that this was the earliest human species to make tools for specific purposes i.e., to cut meat etc., </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">By 1.9 million years ago, Homo erectus (meaning </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'upright man')</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, formerly known as Pithecanthropus erectus,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">had evolved into a new, fully grown human species in African tropics. The species was "</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">having upright stature and a well-evolved post-cranial skeleton, but with a smallish brain, low forehead, and protruding face." </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">By about 500,000 years ago, he began to gradually migrate into Asia and parts of Europe.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">He was probably also the first to use fire. We think that Homo erectus built campfires and may have made simple ovens with hot stones.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Neanderthal, also spelled Neandertal, is </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a member of an extinct subspecies of powerful, physically robust humans, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, who emerged between </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">300,000 and 100,000 years ago and</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> inhabited Europe and western and central Asia. Neanderthals were also </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">hunter-gatherers, whose diet consisted mainly of meat. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meat is the primary source of energy in the hunter-gatherer diet. Neanderthals were known for their second largest brains. They</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">moved from Africa into Europe sometime around 46,000 years ago. Neanderthals in Europe endured many environmental changes, including large shifts in climate between glacial and inter-glacial conditions. However </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">their brains were about 300 cc smaller. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">This reduction in brain volume must have taken place after the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural diet. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Homo sapiens (Latin "wise man') belongs to the species of bipedal primates to which modern human belong. Homo is the human genus, that also includes Neanderthals and various extinct species of Hominin. Homo sapiens is the lone surviving species of the genus Homo. Modern humans belongs to the sub species of Homo sapiens. H. sapiens are </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">characterized by </span>bipedal stance and gait, brain capacity averaging about 1400 cc (82 cubic inches), high forehead, small teeth and jaw and defined chin, They depended upon verbal and non-verbal communication and devised and utilized complex tools. <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Homo sapiens first appear in the fossil record about 200,000 years ago. </span><br />
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Until agriculture was developed around 10,000 years ago, all humans got their food by hunting, gathering, and fishing. As farming emerged, nomadic hunter-gatherers were gradually pushed off towards prime farmland</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;"><span style="color: #888888; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px;">PC: Ken hokes human evolution timeline</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The discovery of fire, or, more precisely, the controlled use of fire was one of the earliest of human discoveries. The purposes of fire are multiple, some of which are to add light and heat and to cook plants and animals. </span></div>
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PC Saved from tle.westone.wa.gov.au</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Richard Wrangham, a professor of biology and anthropology at Harvard University, argues that cooking was the breakthrough technological innovation that allowed humans to support big brains </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">resulting in the first human, Homo erectus. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">According to him cooking provided more calories for existing and reduced the caloric cost of digestion. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Homo sapiens evolved from the ability of digesting cooked food with more intake of starches, meat and connective tissue which increases the number of calories in the food available to the human digestive system. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Control of fire changed the course of human evolution, allowing our ancestors to stay warm, cook food, ward off predators and venture into harsh climates. It also had important social and behavioral implications, encouraging groups of people to gather together and stay up late. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">It was regarded by Darwin as the greatest discovery made by humanity. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Egyptian Civilisation</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest civilizations on earth. The river Nile rose and flooded the low lying plains and deposited a layer of rich black soil suitable for growing crops. On the banks of Nile river, along the 'Black Land' (black soil region) the first settlement began. Egyptian Civilization also began about 3100 B.C. During this period hunter-gatherers settled in agricultural villages and animals and people migrated into the region from western Asia. Early hunter-gatherers engaged in hunting the many wild species i.e., wild fowl, fish, pigs, cattle, antelope, and gazelle. Slowly they transformed to agriculture and domesticated the wild pigs and wild cattle. The ancient Egyptian cuisine spans over three thousand years. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Ramses_III_bakery.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="800" height="258" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Ramses_III_bakery.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Bakery Ramesses III PC: Wikimedia Commons</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Both poor and rich Egyptians consumed bread and beer as staple food. Egyptians knew the importance of yeast in cooking and they added it while baking the bread and also used it for brewing. They also took green-shooted onions, other vegetables as well as meat and fish as side dish. They fetched milk, cheese, and butter from domesticated cattle and even got meat from their livestock. Their cooking process included stewing, baking, boiling, grilling, frying, or roasting. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Animal fat was employed for cooking. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They also added spices and herbs to increase the flavor and the spices were imported and therefore spicy food was limited to the wealthy.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">They cultivated barley and emmer, (a kind of cereal) as well as vegetables and fruits including melons, peas, fava beans, fenugreek and lentils along the Nile valley. They learned to cook bread and beer and cereals and added honey and dates to sweeten their food and drink. They harvested honey from wild forests and even domesticated bees kept in pottery hives. The women engaged in beer distillation. Wine was also consumed by the people. They also used grains either as currency to pay taxes or wages or to barter. Egyptians were known for food preservation methods. They constructed 'great silos' to preserve grain for long periods of time and drying and salting practices were employed for fish, vegetables and fruits.</span><br />
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<b>Mesopotamian Civilization</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: Historymartinez's Blog</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mesopotamia (from the Greek, meaning 'between two river system’ i.e., Tigris–Euphrates ) was an ancient region in the eastern Mediterranean. Presently this region roughly corresponding to most of Iraq and parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The island surrounded by the two river system was known as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">'Al-Jazirah' (the island) and was also called as 'Fertile Crescent' by JH Breasted, an Egyptologist. At this island only </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mesopotamian civilization began. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">PC: Hankering for History</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The civilization was widely considered as one of the cradles of Bronze Age civilization by scholars. </span>Mesopotamia was a collection of varied cultures i.e.,<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Sumer, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian cultures (empires), </span>whose only real bonds were their script, their gods, and nearly equal rights enjoyed by women.<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Therefore Mesopotamia could be more precisely comprehended as a geographical region that produced manifold empires and civilization. </span>The invention of writing system has taken place independently in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians were also credited for the invention of the wheels. In 1922 A.D., the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered “the remains of two four-wheeled wagons.' Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and possessed their own land; ran their own business; entered into trade contracts; and even filed for divorce. Other important inventions credited to the Mesopotamians include agriculture, irrigation, the sail (sailboats), beer, wine, complex tools, domestication of animals, sophisticated weaponry and warfare, the chariot, religious rites and demarcation of time into hours, minutes, and seconds, .Babylon is the most famous city from ancient Mesopotamia whose ruins lie in modern-day Iraq<br />
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Sumerians lived in the southernmost part of ancient Mesopotamia which is generally considered the cradle of civilization. Barley, wheat, millet were used as the staple food in the Sumerians diet. It also included <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">chick peas, lentils and beans; onions, garlic and leeks; cucumbers, cress, mustard and fresh green lettuce. Their daily meals comprised barley cake (bread) or barley paste accompanied by onions or beans soaked in barley ale and fish. Meat was consumed in cities than in countryside. and it gets spoiled very quickly due to hot environment.. Instead beef and veal were popular everywhere since people could afford them. </span><br />
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They were <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">characteristically inventive and evolved </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the first writing well </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">before 3000 B.C. They wrote on clay tablets and evolved the script known as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">cuneiform, or "wedge-shaped." Sumerians </span>were also credited for the first written recipes i.e., <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian word lists. These archaeological sources cite the </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">importance of barley bread, of which many varieties are referred, and barley and wheat cakes, and grain and legume soups; of onions, leeks and garlic; of vegetables including chate melon, and of fruits including apple, fig and grape; of honey and cheese; of several culinary herbs; and of butter and vegetable oil. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sumerians more often drank beer and consumed wine occasionally. Wine was well known in northern Mesopotamia. Animal meat consisted of pork, mutton, beef, fowl including ducks and pigeons, and many varieties of fish. Meat was salted and preserved; fruits were conserved in honey; several foods, including apples, were dried. A kind of fermented cause is identified in Akkadian texts.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mesopotamians cultivated onions, leeks and garlic plants. Barley was their main crop. Rice and corn were unknown to them and wheat cultivation flourished in less saline soil. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The fruit cultivation included apples, apricots, cherries, figs, melons, mulberries, pears, plums, pomegranates, and quinces.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Barley bread was very popular food stuff. Date was an important fruit crop and date palms were domesticated in </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">southern Mesopotamia,</span><br />
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<b>Indus Valley Civilization</b></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Principal Sites of Indus Valley Civilization PC: Encyclopedia Brittanica</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Indus or Harappan civilization belongs to the Chalcolithic or Bronze Age civilization. Discovery of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the objects of copper and stone were found around 1400 Harappan sites. It is known as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Harappan civilization since it </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa, situated in the province of west Punjab in Pakistan. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sir John Marshall was the first person to use the term ‘Indus civilization.’ </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Mehrgarh from the Indus Valley Civilization. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Terracotta pots of all shapes and sizes were found in various Indus Valley sites. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Indus Valley Pottery PC: The Cultural Landscape Through Time</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Cooper Seals PC: Ancient Asia</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Economy PC: River Valley Civilization</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">People used pots </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">to carry and store many different types of liquids and grains.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Copper and bronze plates were also discovered, probably utilized exclusively by wealthy upper class city dwellers. Wheat and barley were used as main staple food and prepared bread as well as gruel or porridge. At certain sites, particularly Gujarat, Indus valley people </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">cultivated some native millets i.e., possibly broom-corn millet. Wild rice was used as fodder for cattle and for this purpose they even cultivated the same crop. However rice does not formed part of their cultivation. They cultivated </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">lentils and other pulses i.e., peas, chickpeas, green gram, black gram etc., Indus valley people must have consumed wide range of fruits, vegetables and spices including: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a variety of brassica, brown mustard greens, coriander, dates, jujube, walnuts, grapes, figs, mango, okra, caper, sugarcane, garlic, turmeric, ginger, cumin and cinnamon. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The granaries discovered in Indus valley sites points out that cereals were produced in large quantity. It is interesting to take note of bones of wild species such as boar,deer,and gharial (a.k.a the gavial), and the fish-eating crocodile, in Indus valley. Yet another interesting discovery was banana and it is not clear whether banana was cultivated in the Harappan region or obtained through trade. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Indus valley civilization people were mostly non-vegetarians and very few of them were vegetarians. The people consumed meat and there are evidences to show </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the funeral offerings made for the deceased and also evidences exist that some people in Harappan sites consumed beef.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Archaeological excavations of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">number of artefact such as sling balls of clay, copper fish hooks, the arrow heads, the flying knives etc</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> stand as evidence that the Indus valley people used these tools for hunting or fishing. It is also evident that Indus valley people were not only hunters </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and fishermen </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">but also farmers. They consumed meat and included chicken, wild fowl, venison, antelopes, porcupine, beef, pork, rams, shellfish, fish etc.,.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">"In all civilizations we've studied, all cultures that we know of across the Earth and across time have invested some kind of attempt to understanding where where, where they come from, and where they are going." <i><u>Neil deGrasse Tyson</u></i> <i>In</i> Time, Earth, Understanding </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Reference</b></span></div>
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<li>A Brief History of Cooking With Fire by Rebecca Rupp http://theplate.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Ancient Civilizations for Kids. https://sites.google.com/site/1ancientcivilizationsforkids/ancient-iraq-mesopotamia</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Ancient Egypt by Joshua J. Mark. 02 September 2009. http://www.ancient.eu/egypt/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Ancient Egypt. Food Timeline http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodfaq3.html#egypt</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Ancient Man and His First Civilizations: Homo-habilis, Homo-erectus, Homo-sapien-sapien. http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Homo_habilis_erectus_neanderthal.htm</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">A</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">gyptian Civilization: Daily Life - Food http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcl02e.shtml</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman'; text-align: justify;">Babylon. http://www.ancient.eu/babylon/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Beef Eating in the Ancient Tamizhagam. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao (A paper presented during the 57th session of Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996). July 7, 2013. http://beef.sabhlokcity.com/2013/07/beef-eating-in-the-ancient-tamizhagam/ </span></li>
<li>Changes in the Indian menu over the ages http://www.thehindu.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm</li>
<li>Cooking https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Eating Meat. Paul Cooijmans. http://paulcooijmans.com/evolution/eating_meat.html</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Foraging: Life as a Hunter-Gatherer https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/early-humans/how-did-first-humans-live/a/foraging</span></li>
<li>History of Cooking https://allthatcooking.com/history-of-cooking/</li>
<li>History of Cooking https://hubpages.com/food/history-of-cooking</li>
<li>History of India upto 8th century https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1611&chapterid=1637</li>
<li>Indian food http://quatr.us/india/food/</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996). July 7, 2013. http://beef.sabhlokcity.com/2013/07/beef-eating-in-the-ancient-tamizhagam/</span></li>
<li>Man Entered the Kitchen 1.9 Million Years Ago By Jennifer Welsh http://www.livescience.com/15688-man-cooking-homo-erectus.html</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Mesopotamia. http://www.ancient.eu/Mesopotamia/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Sumer. http://www.ancient.eu/sumer/</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">The Sumerians and Mesopotamia https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/sumerian/a/the-sumerians-and-mesopotamia</span></li>
<li>What was the food eaten in ancient/Vedic India? https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-food-eaten-in-ancient-Vedic-India</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-46161647398024740042017-05-18T08:07:00.001-07:002017-05-18T08:07:38.329-07:00Tirukovalur, Ancient Capital of Malainadu (Maladu): History of Malaiyamans and Tirumudi Kari<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Tirukovalur or Thirukkovalur, also known in various names such as Tirukoilur, Tirukoyilur, Tirukovilur, is a panchayat town in Tirukkoyilur taluk, Villuppuram district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 605757. The nondescript pastoral town, located on the banks of Pennai river, is 202 km away from Chennai (through NH 45 and SH 9), 74.7 km from Pondicherry and 238.5 km from Bangalore and it is placed on the State Highway (SH 9) linking Tiruvannamalai (34.7 km in south-east direction) and the district head quarters Villupuram (49.2 km in Southwest direction). The region is bounded in the west by the Kalrayan hills and the Javadu hills and they meet at the Chengam pass. This ancient town is in the border of the Villupuram district and Tiruvannamalai district. The geographical coordinates of Tirukovalur are 11.95°N latitude and 79.2°E longitude and the elevation / altitude is 73 m (239 feet) from sea-level. It has a population of 39,108 (males constitute 49% and females 51%.) according to 2014 census.<br />
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This taluk head quarter has great historical and religious significance. This place was once the capital of Malayaman dynasty of Sangam era (3rd century B.C to 3rd century A.D.) Malayaman Thirumudi Kari was the renowned chieftain of Malayaman dynasty and also known as one of the seven greatest "Bestowers" of the last Sangam era.<br />
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Kapilar, the most prominent poet of Sangam era composed inspiring poems of merit in Tamil language, was the bosom friend and confidant of Vel Pari, one of the Velir kings After Vel Pari's killing in a war, Kapilar helped the two daughters of Vel Pari by getting them married to Malayaman of Tirukovalur. After this the poet observed his Vadakkiruthal (fast unto death by facing north). Another version is that he immolated himself in fire on top of a hillock. Kapilar rock or Kapilar Kundru is a hill rock in the middle of the Pennai River on the south bank of Tirukovalur. Kapilar hillock has a shrine on top of the hillock and a flight of steps leads to the shrine. The monument is protected and maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kapilakkundru</td></tr>
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Meipporul Nayanar, the Malayaman chieftain of Malainadu (Miladudaiyar) and one of the 63 Saivite saints glorified in Sekkilar's Periyapuranam, is connected with Tirukovalur. The chieftain was also known as Cediraja, the king of Cedi. The kingdom of Cedi existed around Tirukovalur. Narasinga Muniyaraiyar Nayanar, chieftain of Tirumunaipadi nadu and one of the 63 Saivite saints glorified in Sekkilar's Periyapuranam, is also connected with Tirukovalur. .Narasinga Muniyaraiyar was the foster-father of saint Sundarar (one of the Tevaram Trios) and Narasinga Muniyaraiyar brought up Sundarar as a prince.<br />
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The town is also known for its ancient Shiva shrine (Virattanam of Tirukovalur) at Kilur (Kilaiyur) and is glorified in Thevaram by Sambandar and Appar, one decad each. The Shiva temple has some inscriptions of Vijayālaya. Yet the scholars assign the date to Parantaka. It is also known for its Vishnu temple of Trivikrama at Melur, exalted by the first three early Vaishnavite Alwars (Muthal Alwars).<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Veeratteswarar temple, Tirukoyilur</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Tirukoyilur</td></tr>
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Rajaraja Chola I and his brother, the Chola Prince Aditya Karikalan, were born in Tirukovalur. Rajaraja Chola I , born as Arunmozhivarman,<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola and Vanavanmadevi, the princess of Malayaman dynasty.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vanavanmadevi was born in Tirukovalur as a lovable daughter of Malayaman chieftain of Thirukovalur (ARE 236 / 1902 S.I.I. Vol.VII.No 863).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">. </span>She committed sati when her husband Sundara Chola expired.<br />
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<b>Sangam Polity</b><b> and </b><b>Sangam Literature</b><br />
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Tamilakam (தமிழகம்) during Sangam period was divided among the three political powers, the Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras and the three capitals were Pukar (புகார்), Madurai (மதுரை), and Vanji (வஞ்சி). They are known as crowned kings (முடியுடை மூவேந்தர்). Whenever the crowned kings conquered the feudal territories, they never annexed them to their kingdom. Instead they allowed the feudal to function as an autonomous states under their suzerainty. Thus there were number of feudatories or chieftaincies in Tamilakam These chieftaincies evolved as a landed aristocracy and in course of time they might have acted as soldiers, warriors, generals and even ministers to their suzerains..<br />
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Some chieftains exercised vast powers of internal autonomy within their respective territories. However they owned some kind of nominal allegiance to one or more of the the crowned kings. Number of references can be seen about the internecine warfare between the crowned kings and the vassals in Sangam literature, The reason for these feuds could be the breaking of personal loyalty to their over-lords and refusal to pay tribute. <br />
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The chieftains are also tribal clan in character. For example Pegan belongs to Aviyar tribe or clan, Athiyan and Ori belongs to Malavar, tribe or clan. Velir chieftains ruled various parts of Tamilakam and enjoyed the privilege giving their daughters in marriage to the crowned kings. They are celebrated personalities and treated next to the crowned kings. Those chieftains who acted as the guardians of the garrisons (known as Kurumbu) in the border areas. .<br />
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According to A. K. Ramanujan, the word Sangam “means an academy or fraternity. The word is probably borrowed from the vocabulary of Buddhism and Jainism, the two religions competing with Hinduism in the 6th and 7th centuries in South India”. <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">Sangam literature constitutes a total of 2381 poems (</span></span>26,350 lines of poems) <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">composed by 473 poets (including 30 poetesses and 102 poems </span></span>by anonymous authors<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">). Both men and women including </span></span>kings, noble men, learned men, doctors, businessmen, teachers, metal smiths, goldsmiths, cattle herders etc have become poets.<br />
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Sangam poems are the panegyrics or the court poetry in praise of the crowned kings and chieftains of Sangam era and are composed by court-bards or the poets. Sangam literature is still the main source for the early Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras. Most of the poems are secular in nature. <span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">Only sixteen poets have composed </span></span>1177 poems (<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">fifty two percent) of the total </span><span style="text-align: justify;">2279 non-anonymous poems.</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> They are Ammoovanar (</span></span>127 poems), Kapilar (235 poems), Orampokiyar (110 poems), Peyanar (105 poems), Othalanthaiyar (103 poems), Paranar, Maruthan Ilanākanar, Palai Padiya Perunkadunko, Avvaiyar, Nallanthuvanar, Nakkeerar, Ulochanar, Mamoolanar, Kayamanar, Perunkundrur Kilar and Perisathanar. Out of 473 poets, 144 poets have eulogized their patrons in their poems.<br />
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<span style="text-align: center;">Sangam poems, especially in Purananuru and Patirruppattu have a mine of information regarding the heroic exploits of the Sangam era chieftains i.e., Purananuru provides 164 direct references about 59 chieftains, vassals, princes, which are the only available source of information for Sangam polity. </span>Many poems in the Purananuru were written by various Kings of the Tamilakam. <span style="text-align: center;">Though the Akam poem books listed above represent the dramatic monologues of the heroes, loved ones, their companions and the heroine's mothers / stepmothers, they have copious historical allusions to the crowned kings and chieftains. In the Ten Idylls there are 27 references to 12 chieftains.</span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Sirupanatruppadai, one of the Ten Idylls, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">is</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">sung on Oyman Nalliyakodan, the chieftain Oyma nadu by </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Nallur Nathathanar of Idaikkazhinadu, </span>The poem lines 84 to 112 also speaks about the greatness of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்) and they include: 1. Pegan of Aviyar clan (வையாவிக் கோப்பெரும் பேகன்), 2. Vel Pari, the Lord of Parambu (வேள் பாரி), 3. Kari (மலையமான் திருமுடி காரி), 4. Ay Andiran (ஆய் அண்டிரன்), 5. Athikan (அதிகன்), 6. Nalli (நளி மலை நாடன் நள்ளி) and 7. Valvil Ori (வல்வில் ஓரி). Athikan is also known as Athiyaman.</div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: center; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Purananuru poem 158 sung on Kumanan (குமணன்), chieftain of </span>Mutiram hills (முதிரமலை)<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: center; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> by Poet Perunchithiranar </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">(பெருஞ்சித்திரனார்)</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: center;"> also mentions about </span>the greatness of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்). Instead Athikan (அதிகன்) at srl. no. 5, the poem includes Ezhini (எழினி), the chieftain of Kutirai hills (குதிரைமலை நாடு) </div>
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<span style="line-height: 18px;">ஊராது ஏந்திய குதிரைக் கூர் வேல்</span><br />
<span style="line-height: 18px;">கூவிளங் கண்ணிக் கொடும் பூண் எழினி</span><br />
<span style="font-family: inherit;">(Poet </span>Perunchithiranar<span style="font-family: inherit;"> sang to </span>Kumanan<span style="font-family: inherit;">. </span>Purananuru<span style="font-family: inherit;"> 158: 8 - 9)</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 18px;">Elini Athiyaman carrying a spear who ruled over Kuthirai Mountain wearing a koovilam garland and curved necklace</span><br />
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<span style="text-align: center;">The poets, bards and minstrels indicated the path of virtue to the crowned kings and chieftains. Their political diplomacy has prevented bloody feuds and internecine warfare and even safeguarded the lives of young princes. </span>Kari was captured and killed by Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan (குலமுற்றத்துத் துஞ்சிய கிள்ளி வளவன்), the Chola king in a battle. The Chola king was also planned to have his children crushed by an elephant. Poet Kovur Kilar intercedes in a timely manner and saves the children. (Purananuru 46).<br />
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<b>Miladu Maladu Malainadu</b><br />
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Tolkappiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்) is the earliest available work in Tamil. The dating of this earliest Tamil grammatical work has been disputed much and its date is still inaccurate and doubtful. Proposing a date has witnessed wide disagreements among scholars. It has been dated variously between 8000 BC and 10th AD. It is composed in the form of short formulaic compositions a.k.a noorpaa (நூற்பா). Its three books include the Ezhuttadikaram, the Solladikaram and the Poruladikaram. This seminal work assigns to classes the Tamil language into classical Tamil or Sentamil (செந்தமிழ்) and dialectal Tamil or koduntamil (கொடுந்தமிழ்). The former is employed almost exclusively in literary works and the latter was spoken by the people in the various regions of ancient Tamilakam. According to Tolkappiyar (தொல்காப்பியர்) there were twelve ancient regions (panniru nilam = <span style="text-align: center;">பன்னிரு நிலம்</span>) as the sources of the dialectisms (கொடுந்தமிழ்):<br />
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“<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>செந்தமிழ் சேர்ந்த பன்னிரு நிலத்தும்</div>
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தம் குறிப்பினவே திசைச்சொல் கிளவி.</div>
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He never mentioned about the names of those regions. According to a poem or venba by latter commentators, there were twelve regions (panniru nilam) which were the sources of the dialectisms (கொடுந்தமிழ்):</div>
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தென்பாண்டி குட்டம் குடம்கற்கா வேண்பூழி</div>
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பன்றிஅருவா அதன்வடக்கு — நன்றாய</div>
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சீத<span style="color: red;">மலநாடு</span> புனல்நாடு செந்தமிழ்சேர்</div>
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ஏதமில் பன்னிரு நாட்டெண்</div>
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Malayaman nadu or Malainadu was included as one of the twelve region.<br />
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The geographical region of the present Villupuram district was forming part of Nadunadu (நடுநாடு) and included the regions of two Sangam era feudatories or chieftaincies. One among them was known as Malayaman nadu (மலையமான் நாடு) a.k.a Malainadu (மலைநாடு) or Maladu (மலாடு) or Miladu (மிலாடு). The other one is the Oymanadu (ஓய்மாநாடு). Malainadu or Maladu included the present Kallakurichi, Tirukoyilur, Sankarapuram, Villupuram, Ulundurpet regions as well as Kalvararayan hills. Oymanadu included coasts of present Pondicherry, Marakkanam, Tindivanam and Gingee regions.<br />
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According to an inscription (Epigraphia Indica, Vol. No: 7. K.P. No. 146) Malainadu included 2000 bhumi (பூமி) (bhumi is an area measuring unit i.e., one bhumi included ten veli land). Malainadu or Maladu was having 1. Kurukkai-kurram (குறுக்கைக் கூற்றம்): - Tirukovalur, Sirringur (சிற்றிங்கூர்) (Siddhalingamadam) and 2. Panur-kurram (பானூர் கூற்றம்): - Iraiyanaraiyur (இறையநாரையூர்) (present name Elvanasur எலவனசூர்) was a large independent village. It was also called as Pennaiyam Padappai Nadu<br />
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பெண்ணையம் படப்பை நாடு கிழவோயே. (Poet Marokathu Nappasalaiyr. Purannuru 126: 23)</div>
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O lord of the country with the lovely Pennai River!</div>
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Back in time, when it was at the peak of its glory, the region was also known as Chedi Kingdom or Chethi Nadu (சேதி நாடு). Cedi chieftains ruled this region and the Cholas acted as their suzerains. The Cedi kings have entered marital relationship with Cholas. A number Kurrams constituted Valanadu. Commencing from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I till the end of 13th century A.D. this region was known as Jananatha Valanadu. Several Valanadus made up one Mandalam or province i.e., Jayangondasora mandalam. During the reign of Vijayanagara dynasty this region was known as Tiruvathi Rajyam and Tiruvathi Seemai during the reign of Achyudha Rayar (1529 - 1542) as well as Sadashiva Rayar (1535 - 1575). <br />
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<b>Malayaman Tirumudi Kari</b></div>
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Malayaman Tirumudi Kari was one of the Seven Great Benefactors or Bestowers or Patrons of the last Sangam era a.k.a Kadai ezhu vallalgal (கடையேழு வள்ளல்கள்). He was a good and kind chieftain in many respects and never sent the bards and mendicants, who visit his abode seeking munificence, with empty handed. The poets mention about the shower of lavish gifts of gold, gems, elephants, sturdy horses, chariots, food grains and fine muslin garments made to the bards.<br />
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Kari was eulogized for his generosity and valour in four of the eight anthologies (Ettuthokai) books such as Akananuru (அகநானுறு), Kuruntokai (குறுந்தோகை), Natrinai (நற்றிணை) and Purananuru (புறநானுறு) as well as in one of the Ten Idylls (பத்துப்பாட்டு) book - Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை). Sangam poets such as Ammuvanar (அம்மூவனார்), Kalladanar (கல்லாடனார்), Kapilar (கபிலர்), <span style="text-align: center;">Marokathu Nappasalaiyar (மாறோக்கத்து நப்பசலையார்), Perunchithiranar (பெருஞ்சித்திரனார்) and </span><span style="text-align: center;">Vadama Vannakkan Perunchathanar (வடம வண்ணக்கன் பெருஞ்சாத்தனார்) lauded Kari. </span><br />
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;">In Sirupanatruppadai </span></span>(சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை)<span style="text-align: justify;">, poet Nallur Nathathanar of Idaikkazhinadu (இடைக்கழி நாட்டு நல்லூர் நத்தத்தனார்) eulogizes Malayaman Tirumudi Kari in the</span><span style="text-align: justify;"> poem lines 91 to 95. </span></div>
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……………………… கறங்கு மணி</div>
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வால் உளைப் புரவியொடு வையகம் மருள</div>
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ஈர நல் மொழி இரவலர்க்கு ஈந்த</div>
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அழல் திகழ்ந்து இமைக்கும் அஞ்சுவரு நெடு வேல்</div>
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கழல் தொடித் தடக் கை காரியும் (Pathuppattu – Sirupanatruppadai 91-95)</div>
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Kari, adorned with sliding bracelets on his huge hands, has gifted horses with jingling bells and white plumes. He inspired people with his kind, good words. His bright, tall spear caused terror.<br />
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In Purananuru poem 158 poet <span style="text-align: center;">Perunchithiranar praises about </span>Malayaman Tirumudi Kari in the poem lines 6 to 7. The genorosity of Kari is being compared with the rain cloud. </div>
காரி ஊர்ந்து பேர் அமர்க் கடந்த<br />
மாரி ஈகை மறப்போர் மலையனும்<br />
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(Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan. Purananuru 158: 6 - 7)</div>
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Malayan, brave in war, who was as charitable as the rain cloud and won battles riding on his stallion Kari</div>
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Malayaman dynasty ruled over Malainadu and the mountain plateau called Mullur-malai (முள்ளூர் மலை) a.k.a Mullur nadu (முள்ளூர் நாடு).formed part of his territory.<br />
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முள்ளூர் மன்னன் கழறொடிக் காரி (Akananuru 209)<br />
Mullur King Kari with warrior anklets and bracelets,</div>
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Therefore the region was known as Malainadu. Malayaman dynasty was also known by this name. Tirumudi Kari was the chieftain of the mountain plateau of Mullur or Mullur-malai. Malaiyamān Tirumudi Kari was the chief of the renowned warrior clan of Malavar. His capital was Tirukovalur.</div>
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துஞ்சா முழவின் கோவல் கோமான் (Akananuru 35)<br />
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Kari the Lord of Kovalur, the town with non-stopping drums<br />
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The people of his time considered him the most modest of kings. Nobody left empty-handed after paying a visit to him and the visitor who came on barefoot would usually return mounted on a horse or an elephant of his choice. He called himself not a king but a "rightful servant of his beloved people".<br />
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<i>Kari revolted against Killivalavan</i></div>
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The chieftains were subdued by the empire builders i.e., Muvendars - Chera, Chola and Pandya of ancient Tamilakam and their paramountacy was accepted. He was a vassal to the early Chola king Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan (குலமுற்றத்துத் துஞ்சிய கிள்ளி வளவன்). Over the period of time he broke his loyalty to the over-lord and wore a crown and declared himself as Tirumudi Kari. Thus he became virtually an independent ruler. He was very powerful and had his own administration and army. He enjoyed certain rights and privileges. He was a revolting vassal and was one of the most dangerous threats to the crowned king and neighboring vassals. </div>
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<i>Kari supported Cheral Irumporai in Chera - Chola War</i></div>
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Yanaikatcei Maandaran Cheral Irumporai (<span style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"></span>சேரமான் யானைகட்சேய் மாந்தரஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை)</div>
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was a Chera king The Chola ruler Rajasuyam-vetta-peru-nar-killi (சோழன் இராசசூயம் வேட்ட பெருநற்கிள்ளி) and Maandaran Cheral Irumporai encountered each other in a pitched battle. Kari and his army supported the Cholas in this battle and helped the Chola to conquer the Chera. Without the support of Kari this victory could not have possible for Cholas. For this they have lost huge number of elephants in the battle, yet Kari never mind about loss and brought victory to Cholas.</div>
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குன்றத்து அன்ன களிறு பெயரக்</div>
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கடந்துஅட்டு வென்றோனும் நிற்கூ றும்மே</div>
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வெலீஇயோன் இவன் எனக்</div>
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கழல்அணிப் பொலிந்த சேவடி நிலம்கவர்பு</div>
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விரைந்துவந்து சமம் தாங்கிய</div>
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வல்வேல் மலையன் அல்லன் ஆயின்</div>
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நல்அமர் கடத்தல் எளிதுமன் நமக்குஎனத்</div>
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தோற்றோன் தானும் நிற்கூ றும்மே</div>
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(Poet Vadama Vannakkan Perunchathan, Purananuru 125)<br />
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The victor who slayed mountain-like elephants says, that you gave him victory. The defeated one thinks that without Malaiyan with his strong spear who came swiftly to the field, his handsome legs gleaming with war anklets, he would have won easily. He praises you when he says that you were the one who made him lose. Greatness! </div>
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<i>Kari - Athiyaman Neduman Anci: Encounter</i></div>
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Athiyaman Neduman Anci was the chief of the renowned warrior clan of Malavar. Thagadoor was his capital (identified with modern Dharmapuri district. Kari waged war on Thagadoor against Athiyaman Neduman Anci. It was an attempt fueled by his longtime desire to become an emperor equivalent in power to the Cholas. Kari was defeated and lost Kovalur to Athiyaman. After sometime Athiyaman believed to have demolished the Kovalur town and the inscription in Thanjavur Big Temple seems to have the evidence.<br />
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<i>Kari Killed Ori in a War</i><br />
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Paalai paadiya Perum Cheral Irumporai (பாலை பாடிய பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை), the Chera monarch was in agreement with Malayaman Tirumudi Kari and the Chera was expecting Kari's support in defeating Valvil Ori (வல்வில் ஓரி), the chieftain of neighboring Kolli hills (கொல்லிமலை). Kari defeated and killed Ori and took Kolli Hills. An Akananuru poem 209 registers this event.</div>
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முள்ளூர் மன்னன் கழல்தொடிக் காரி</div>
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செல்லா நல்இசை நிறுத்த வல்வில்</div>
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ஓரிக் கொன்று சேரலர்க்கு ஈந்த (Akananuru 209)</div>
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Mullur King Kari with warrior anklets and bracelets, owning bloody spears, gifted to the Cheras after killing Ori of unfading fame and strong bows.<br />
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<span style="text-align: justify;">"ஓரிக்கொன்றவொருபெருந் திருவிற், காரி புக்க நேரார் புலம்போற், கல்லென் றன்றாலூரே" (Poet Kapilar, Natrinai. 320)</span><br />
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The whole town laughs with great uproar. This is like when Kāri killed Ori of ancient victories, and then entered his wide avenue which had no match, and his people raised uproars.</div>
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<i>Perum Cheral Irumporrai Killed Athiyaman</i><br />
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Kari, in order to avenge his earlier defeat, also sought the support of Chera to invade and conquer Thagadoor Accordingly the Chera king attacked and Athiyaman was killed in this battle. After this encounter Kari was able to regain back Kovalur. In "Thagadoor Yathirai," (தகடூர் யாத்திரை) the Sangam poets detail about Thagadoor attack by Perum Cheral Irumporrai.<br />
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<i>Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan Defeated and Killed Kari</i><br />
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Kari commenced to dominate or overshadow the early Chola king Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan (குலமுற்றத்துத் துஞ்சிய கிள்ளி வளவன்). The Chola king wanted teach him a lesson by invading Tirukovalur. There was a pitched battle. Kari was resolute enough to win or die. During the early encounter Chola army met with huge casualty and lost around 10000 soldiers. The Chola intelligence captured the twin sons of Kari as war prison. Kari followed them up to the Chola army camp, where he was captured and killed by the Chola. Further to this Killivalavan, Chola king was getting ready to have his children crushed by an elephant. Poet Kovūr Kilar intercedes in a timely manner and saves the children. (Purananuru 46 by Poet Kovur Kilar).<br />
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<b>Malayaman Choliya Enati Tirukkannan</b></div>
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Malayaman Choliya Enati Tirukkannan (மலையமான் சோழிய ஏனாதி திருக்கண்ணன்) was a descendant of Malayaman Tirumudi Kari. He was the Chietain of Maladu and the Lord of Mullur. He might be Kari's son. He succeeded as the chieftain of Maladu after Kari's death. Kulamuttrathu Tunjiya Killivalavan (குலமுற்றத்துத் துஞ்சிய கிள்ளி வளவன்), an early Chola king, was the over-lord of Tirukkannan. He was not only the chieftain of Malayaman dynasty, but also a feudatory as well as military chief to Chola king. He was awarded with the title "Choliya Enati" (Choliya = Chola; Enati = army chief) i.e., the chief of the Chola army. </div>
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கவலை நெஞ்சத்து அவலந் தீர<br />
நீ தோன்றினையே நிரைத் தார் அண்ணல்<br />
கல் கண் பொடியக் கானம் வெம்ப<br />
மல்கு நீர் வரைப்பில் கயம் பல உணங்கக்<br />
கோடை நீடிய பைதறு காலை<br />
இரு நிலம் நெளிய ஈண்டி<br />
உரும் உரறு கருவிய மழை பொழிந்தாங்கே.<br />
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(Poet Marokathu Nappasalaiyar Purananuru 174: 23 - 29)</div>
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Poetess Nappasalaiyar of Marokam has composed this Purananuru poem 174 Malayaman Choliya Enati Tirukkannan In a Purananuru poem 174 Marokam Nappasalaiyar praises that Tirukkannan played an important and significant role in regaining the falling Chola kingdom. His appearance is being compared rains falling with loud thunder and lightning, during a long summer when mountains crumbled, forests burned and reservoirs filled with water dried up.</div>
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<b>Mullur a.k.a Mullurmalai</b><br />
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At present there is a village / hamlet called Mullur and is located in Gingee taluk, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 605201. It comes under Anaiyeri Panchayat.. The village located 28 km towards north of district head quarters Villupuram, 7 km from Gingee and 162 km from Chennai. This village is in the border of the Villupuram district and Tiruvannamalai district.<br />
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A Purananuru poem 123 by poet Kapilar assigns about the tallness of Mullur mountain plateau and this hilly region receives abundant rain..<br />
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தொலையா நல்லிசை விளங்கு மலயன்</div>
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மகிழாது ஈத்த இழையணி நெடுந்தேர்</div>
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பயங் கெழு <span style="color: red;"><b>முள்ளூர்</b></span> மீமிசைப்</div>
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பட்ட மாரி உறையினும் பலவே.</div>
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(Poet Kapilar. Purannuru 123: 3 - 6)</div>
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Shining Malaiyan with untarnished fame gives away beautifully decorated chariots without drinking, their numbers higher than the rain drops that fall on fertile Mullur Mountain.<br />
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Further to this another Purananuru poem 126 by poetess <span style="text-align: center;">Marokathu Nappasalaiyar describes about the dense and dark forest of Mullur and the roaring sound produced by the waterfalls resembles the hard beats of the drum.</span><br />
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துயில் மடிந்தன்ன தூங்கிருள் இறும்பின்</div>
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பறை இசை அருவி <span style="color: red;"><b>முள்ளூர்ப்</b></span> பொருநர்</div>
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தெறல் அரும் மரபின் நின் கிளையொடும் பொலிய</div>
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(Poet Marokathu Nappasalaiyr. Purannuru 126: 7 - 9), </div>
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O lord of Mullur Mountain, where waterfalls roar like drums of war and the fores t seems to be sleeping through nights with pitch darkness! </div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Kuruntokai and Natrinai also refer Mullur as:</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">செவ்வேல் மலையன் <span style="color: red;"><b>முள்ளூர்</b></span> (Poet Kapilar. Kuruntokai 312)</span></div>
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Malayan with lance)<br />
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<span style="text-align: justify;">"மாயிரு <span style="color: red;"><b>முள்ளூர்</b></span> மன்னன் மாவூர்ந்தெல்லித் தரீஇய வினநிரைப், பல்லான் கிழவரின்" -(</span>Natrinai<span style="text-align: justify;">. 291)</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red;">Kari rode up with his horse and seized the cattle herd with many cows.</span></span><br />
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ஆரியர் துவன்றிய பேர் இசை <span style="color: red;"><b>முள்ளூர்</b></span></div>
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பலர் உடன் கழித்த ஒள் வாள் மலையன<span style="text-align: justify;">, தொருவேற் கோடி யாங்கு</span> (Natrinai 170: 6 - 7)<br />
Malaiyan with bright sword, who along with his army, repelled Aryan invaders in renowned Mullur.<br />
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There was a battle at renowned Mullur. Aryans attacked with their army. King Malaiyan (Malayaman Tirumudi Kari) fought with them with bright sword. Malaiyan repelled the Aryan invaders. Viralis were artists who sang and danced. They were related to bards. The dancing skills of the beauteous Virali will be like Malaiyan (Malayaman Tirumudi Kari) with bright sword, who along with his army, repelled Aryan invaders in renowned Mullur.</div>
ஊராது ஏந்திய குதிரைக் கூர் வேல்<br />
கூவிளங் கண்ணிக் கொடும் பூண் எழினி<br />
எள் அறு சிறப்பின் முள்ளூர் மீமிசை<br />
அரு வழி இருந்த பெரு விறல் வளவன்<br />
மதி மருள் வெண் குடை காட்டி அக்குடை<br />
புதுமையின் நிறுத்த புகழ் மேம்படுந<br />
விடர்ப்புலி பொறித்த கோட்டைச் சுடர்ப் பூண்<br />
சுரும்பு ஆர் கண்ணிப் பெரும் பெயர் நும் முன்<br />
ஈண்டுச் செய் நல்வினை யாண்டுச் சென்று உணீஇயர்<br />
உயர்ந்தோர் உலகத்துப் பெயர்ந்தனன் ஆகலின்<br />
(Poet Marrokathu Nappasalaiyr. Purannuru 174: 13 - 20)<br />
At a difficult time when the Chola kingdom was lost, your ancestor with drums roaring in his front yard, ended the sorrow of the fine country where Kaviri flows with abundant water hitting its shores, set the moon-like white umbrella in its place, of Valavan who was in hiding firmly on the tall Mullūr Mountain decorated with clouds. sung by poet Kapilar whose tongue never lied, as brave enemy warriors ran away rapidly showing their backs. May his fame soar!<br />
Your famous ancestor whose fortress was carved with the symbol of the tiger that lives in caves, he who wore gleaming jewels and a garland humming with bees, has gone to the higher world to enjoy the benefits of his good deeds here, and so you have come here to relieve the misery of those in all directions whose hearts are in pain.</div>
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<b>Kotunkal</b></div>
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There was a town on the banks of Pennai and it was known as "Kotunkal" (கொடுங்கால்). At present there is a place called Kodungal and is located in Mugaiyur block, Tirukoyilur taluk, Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 605755. It is a village Panchayat.. The village, located on the south banks of Pennai river, is 14 km away from Tirukoyilur, 15 km from Tiruvennainallur, 7 km from Mugaiyur, and 5.9 km from Arkandanallur. The nearest railway station to Kodungal is Mambalappattu which is located in and around 7.2 km distance. This village is in the border of the Villupuram district and Tiruvannamalai district. The geographical coordinates of Kodungal are 11.961022 N latitude and 79.2757237 E longitude and the elevation / altitude is 75 m from sea-level. It has a population of 3090 (male 1558 and female 1532) according to 2011 census. Some scholars consider this village as Sangam age Kotunkal. Pennai river flows to the south of Kodungal. At this place the Pennai river splits into two and flows towards east and merges back into single river. Thus an island is formed (like the Srirengam island formed between Cauvery and Kollidam rivers). The southern branch of Pennai river is broad and the flow of water is vast when compared with northern branch of Pennai river. Since the north Pennai is narrow and left with less water flow, Sangam poet Ammuvanar (of Akananuru poem 35) draws comparison of fine sands of the huge shores of Pennai river with the dark hair of the heroine.</div>
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துஞ்சா முழவின் கோவல் கோமான்</div>
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நெடுந்தேர்க் காரி <span style="color: red;"><b>கொடுங்கால்</b></span> முன் துறை</div>
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பெண்ணையம் பேரியாற்று நுண் அறல் கடுக்கும்</div>
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நெறி இருங்கதுப்பின் என் பேதைக்கு</div>
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அறியாத் தேஎத்து ஆற்றிய துணையே.</div>
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(Akananuru 35: 13 - 17)</div>
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May he be a partner to her in the paths of unknown lands, my daughter with straight, dark hair, resembling the fine sands of the huge shores of the Pennai River at Kodunkāl, belonging to King Kāri of Kovalur owning tall chariots, where drumsdon’t rest!</div>
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<b style="text-align: left;">Inscription</b><br />
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Jambai inscription of Athiyaman Neduman Anci (அதியமான் நெடுமான் அஞ்சி) is found on a rock inside a cavern, <span style="line-height: 19.6px;"><i>Dasimadam (தாசிமடம் குகை)</i></span> on the hillock of Jambai, a village in Villupuram district. It was discovered in 1981 by Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology. The village, located on the north bank of the Pennai river, is just 19.6 km away from Tirukovalur. The epigraph, dated the 1st century A.D., is in Tamil Brahmi (தமிழ் பிரம்மி) and reads as:</div>
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<i><b>Satiyaputo Atiyan Natuman Anci itta Pali</b></i> </div>
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The abode given by Athiyan Neduman Anji, the Satyaputo</div>
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It is the Jambai inscription that prove that the “Satyaputo” mentioned by Asoka was none other than the Adhiyaman dynasty, which ruled from Thagadur. The Tamil Brahmi inscription also links Adhiyaman Netuman Anci with the Tamil Sangam Age (தமிழ் சங்க காலம்) (the Eight Anthologies (எட்டுத்தொகை) and Ten Idyls (பத்துப்பாட்டு) and the Tamil-Brahmi age (தமிழ் பிரம்மி காலம்)</div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Jambai_Tamil_Brahmi.jpg/1280px-Jambai_Tamil_Brahmi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="145" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Jambai_Tamil_Brahmi.jpg/1280px-Jambai_Tamil_Brahmi.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Jambai Inscription (Wikimedia)<br />
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Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has copied 79 (77+2) inscriptions in the year 1902 vide ARE nos. 230 to 306 1902; 23 inscriptions in the year 1905 vide ARE nos. 3 to 25; and 2 inscriptions in the year 1935 vide ARE nos. 200 to 201 in Tirukovalur Virataneswarar Temple. The temple has 104 inscriptions in Grantha and ancient Tamil. South Indian Inscription (S.I.I.) volume VII has published the full text of the 79 inscriptions from no. 857 to 935. Inscriptions copied during 1905 and 1935 are yet to be published in S.I.I.<br />
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The Pallava inscriptions of this temple include inscriptions of Nandivarman II<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(731–795 AD), Dantivarman<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(795–846 AD) and Nandivarman III<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(846-869 AD); Chola inscriptions include inscriptions of Parantaka Chola I<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(907–950 AD), Rajaraja Chola I<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(985–1014 AD), Rajendra Chola I<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1012–1044 AD), Rajadhiraja Chola<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1044–1054 AD), Virarajendra Chola<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1063–1067 AD), Kulotunga Chola I<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1070–1120 AD), Vikrama Chola<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1118–1135 AD), and Kulothunga Chola II<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>(1133–1150 AD). The Rashtrakuta inscription was inscribed by Krishna III or Kannara Deva (938 - 967 AD) and the Pandya inscriptions belongs to, Sundara Pandya, Vikrama Pandya (1180 - 1190 AD) and Vijayaraya Marayar (Deva Raya II) (1424–1446 AD).</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">Inscription (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">ARE 236 / 1902 S.I.I. Vol.VII.No 863) </span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">of Rajaraja Chola I inscribed Kamban Maniyan, a Chola official in the Virattaneswarar temple in Tirukovalur. Dr.R.Nagaswamy has conveniently categorized this inscription into eight portions for his study. </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The first portion devotes to Rajaraja Chola I and his achievements; the second </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">portion addresses about Vanavanmadevi the mother of Rajaraja Chola I; and her link with </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">Tirukovalur </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">as the princess of Malayamans. the third portion speaks about Pennai ricer; the fourth portion is about Kapilar hillock and supreme sacrifice after handing over Vel Pari's daughters with Avvaiyar; the fifth portion praises </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">the Viratteneswarar temple in Tirukovalur; the sixth portion registers the Devadana of land for daily puja rituals and offerings made to Lord </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">Viratteneswarar and goddess Parvati; the seventh </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">portion </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: center;">is about the temple personnel and their emoluments; the eighth portion concludes with the bestower </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vithi vitankan Kamban, who was the trustworthy officer under </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Rajaraja Chola I.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">... ... ... கம்பத் தடிகள் 245</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மாதி விடங்கு வருபரி வல்ல</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வீதி விடங்கன்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sundara Chola and Vanavanmadevi were the parents of Rajaraja Chola I. His birth name was Arunmozhivarman. His brother was Aditya Karikala. These two Chola prices had their birth in Tirukovalur and spent their early childhood in Tirukovalur Malayaman palace. Sundara Chola died of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">broken heart due to the murder of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Aditya Karikala in a mysterious circumstances. Vanavanmadevi committed sati (entering the funeral pyre of her husband) leaving her tender child. This was the supreme sacrifice by the Chola queen and it is being highlighted in the second portion of the inscription. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vanavanmadevii is described in this inscription as a "lovely female deer that gave birth to a tiger".</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">செந்திரு மடந்தைமன் ஸரீராச ராசன்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">இந்திர சேனன் ராஜசர் வஞ்ஞ னெனும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><b><span style="color: red;">புலியைப் பயந்த பொன்மான்</span></b> கலியைக் - - - - - - 40</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">கரந்து கரவாக் காரிகை சுரந்த</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">முலைமிகப் பிரிந்து <span style="color: red;"><b>முழங்கெரி நடுவணுந்</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><span style="color: red;"><b>தலைமகற் பிரியாத் தைய்யல்</b></span> நிலைபெறும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">தூண்டா விளக்கு..............</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">........ ......... .......சி சொல்லிய - - - - - - - - - - -45</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">வரைசர்தம் பெருமா னதுலனெம் பெருமான்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">பரைசைவண் களிற்றுப் பூழியன் விரைசெயு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">மாதவித் தொங்கல் மணிமுடி வளவன்</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: times new roman;">சுந்தர சோழன் மந்தர தாரன்</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: times new roman;">திருப்புய முயங்குந் தேவி விருப்புடன் - - - - - - - 50</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: times new roman;">வந்துதித் தருளிய மலையர் திருக்குலத்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><span style="color: red;">தோரன்</span> மையாக தமரகத் தொன்மையிற்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">குலதெய்வ ........ கொண்டது</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">(ARE 236 / 1902 S.I.I. Vol.VII.No 863 Inscription of Rajaraja Chola I inscribed Kamban Maniyan, a Chola official in the Shiva temple in Tirukovalur in Kurukkai-kurram, a subdivision of Miladu (Jananatha-valanadu).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">The fourth part of the inscription details about the supreme sacrifice made by poet Kapilar. It has historic significance. Purananuru poems 113, 117 and 201 by Kapilan brings out the story of Vel Pari and his two daughters. Vel Pari, one of the seven great bestowers, ruled Parambu hills (presently called as Pranmalai, located near Singampunari village in Sivagangai district). Poet Kapilar, his bosom friend and life long companion, extolled Vel Pari for his valour and generosity. </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 18.915px;">‘பாரி ஒருவனும் அல்லன்; மாரியும் உண்டு, ஈங்கு உலகு புரப்பதுவே’ (</span>Purananuru<span style="line-height: 18.915px;">, 107)</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333;"><span style="line-height: 19.6px;">He is being praised for the act of giving away his chariot to a climber plant.</span><span style="color: #333333; line-height: 19.6px;">The three crowned Tamil kings Chera, Chola and Pandya wanted expand their kingdoms ruthlessly and turned their attention towards Vel Pari. Vel Pari refused to accept their suzerainty. They laid siege to the heavily fortified Parambu hills and the war dragged for years. Kapilar moved towards the three crowned kings and pacified them to lift the siege. (Purananuru: 109). </span></span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;"><span style="color: #333333;">After prolonged war Vel Pari was killed by treachery. After his death Kapilar became the guardian for </span></span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;">Angavai and Sangavai, the two daughters of Vel Pari and the poet</span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;"> unsuccessfully approached few Velir chieftains to find grooms.</span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;"> However Kapilar sacrificed his own life by entering </span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;"><span style="color: #333333;">fire and immolated himself on top the hillock on the banks of the river Pennai. </span></span><span style="line-height: 19.6px;">Later, poet Avvaiyar took care of the daughters of Vel Pari and married them off successfully into the family of Malayaman and </span>the marriage ceremony took place in Karapuranathar Temple, Uthamacholapuram, Salem district. The portion of inscription is in abidance with what is best known through the anthology of poems by Sangam era poets.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வன்கரை பொருது வருபுனல் பெண்னை 67</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தென்கரை உள்ளது தீர்த்தத் துறையது </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மொய்வைத்து இயலும் முத்தமிழ் நான்மைத் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">தெய்வக் கவிதைச் செஞ்சொற் கபிலன் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மூரிவண் தடக்கைப் பாரிதன் அடைக்கலப் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பெண்ணை மலையர்க் குதவிப் பெண்ணை </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அலைபுனல் அழுவத்து அந்தரிட் சஞ்செல </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மினல்புகும் விசும்பின் வீடுபேறு எண்ணிக் </span> </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="line-height: 18.915px;">கனல்புகுங் கபிலக் கல்லது புனல்வளர் ......... </span> 75</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(ARE 236 / 1902 S.I.I. Vol.VII.No 863 Inscription of Rajaraja Chola I inscribed Kamban Maniyan, a Chola official in the Shiva temple in Tirukovalur </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">in Kurukkai-kurram, a subdivision of Miladu (Jananatha-valanadu).</span></div>
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The widely known Kapilar kundru or Kapilakkal is in the middle of the Pennai river in the vicinity of Shiva temple. A small shrine is found on this little hillock. </div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><b>Archaeological Excavations at Tirukovalur</b></span></div>
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The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology conducted excavations in Tirukovalur in the year 1994. The team laid six trenches. The excavations help us to understand the history of three different cultures since from first century B.C. till the end of 17th century A.D. Fragments of Roman amphora jars (large storage jars used to transport wine, olive oil, fish products, and so on throughout the Roman empire) were excavated in Tirukovalur i.e., outside the boundaries of Roman empire. The Amphora shreds stand as evidence to Indo-Roman trade in Tirukovalur. Coins issued in ancient Rome have also been excavated near Tirukovalur and this also confirms ancient Indo-Roman trade. The site is also marked by the presence of number of decorated red ware shreds and Indian roulette ware (which were made in the northern parts of India) The Indian roulette collected from this site. indicates the ancient trade links with the rest of the country. They have also unearthed terracotta dolls used by the ancient children as toy. Ancient people have laid 9.5 m long drinking water channel by joining together fifty terracotta pipes. Each pipe measured about 19 cm x 16.5 cm x 2 cm. The unearthing of terracotta spindle reveal the prevalence weaving craft in this region. They have used timber, iron nails and terracotta tiles for constructing the roof in their houses. The excavation also include the pieces of bangles, made in glass, conch and copper, as well as terracotta ear studs. Excavators have also discovered terracotta smoking pipes datable between 13th and 17th century A.D.</div>
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<b>How to get there?</b></div>
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Nearest Bus station: Tirukoilure is well connected with Villupuram and Tiruvannamalai. People will get buses from these two prominent towns.<br />
Nearest Railway station: Tirukkoyilur Railway station, the very nearby railwaystation, is located on the section line between Villupuram and Katpadi and passes through Tiruvannamalai. Katpadi Junction Railway station, a major railway station, is located 130 km from Tirukkoyilur<br />
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Chieftains of the Sangam Age. Tirunavukkarasu, KD. IITS, Madras. 100p.</li>
<li>Sri Thiruvikrama swamy temple. Dinamalar. http://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=605</li>
<li>Sri Veeratteswarar temple. Dinamalar. http://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=161</li>
<li>Thiruk-koyilur inscription. R.Nagaswamy. Tamil Arts Academy. http://tamilartsacademy.com/journals/volume2/articles/thiruk-koyilur.html</li>
<li>Thanjavur Brihadhiswara Temple Inscriptions. South Indian Inscriptions. http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/tanjavur_temple/introduction_1.html</li>
<li>Thiruk-koyilur inscription R.Nagaswamy. Tamil Arts Academy. http://tamilartsacademy.com/journals/volume2/articles/thiruk-koyilur.html</li>
<li>Tirukoyilur. One Five Nine. http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Villupuram/Tirukkoyilur/Tirukkoyilur</li>
<li>Tirukoilur temples. Dr.Ravishankar's blog. October 16, 2011 http://drlsravi.blogspot.in/2011/10/tirukoilur-temples.html</li>
<li>Veeratteswarar Temple of Shiva http://www.templeadvisor.com/temples-in-india/hindu-temples/veeratteswarar-temple</li>
<li>கொடுந்தமிழ் நாடு https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81</li>
<li>சங்ககாலதிற்கு முன்பிருந்த சோழர்கள் https://tiruppathi.wordpress.com/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8/</li>
<li>சோழ மன்னர் மெய்க்கீர்த்திகள் http://aswedtrust.blogspot.in/2014/05/blog-post_3787.html</li>
<li>திருக்கோயிலூர். அப்துல் மஜீத், அ. in ஆய்வில் பூத்த மலர்கள். தமிழ்நாடு அரசு தொல்லியல் துறை, சென்னை, 2001. 20 - 25 பக். </li>
<li>திருக்கோயிலூர் கீழூர் வீராட்டனேஸ்வரர் திருக்கோயில்.. பிச்சைபிள்ளை கூ. விஜயா பதிப்பகம், உளுந்தூர்ப்பேட்டை, 2016. 144 பக். </li>
<li>மலையமான் திருமுடிக்காரியும் முள்ளுர் நாட்டு வளமும் http://manidal.blogspot.in/2015/03/blog-post_40.html</li>
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<b>Youtube</b></div>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Thirukoilure, Tamil Nadu 605757, India11.9687124 79.2086620999999711.953178399999999 79.188492099999976 11.9842464 79.228832099999963tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-83093584990272661102017-04-01T08:24:00.000-07:002017-04-01T08:24:10.376-07:00Padavedu - Land of Thousand Temples: History of Sambuvaraya and Their Capital<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Vijayanagar style Venugopala and Rukmani statues amidst fields PC The Hindu</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Renugambal Temple PC Flickr Raju</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Entry to Padavedu from Santhavasal PC Flickr Raju</td></tr>
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Padavedu (படவேடு) (Padaiveedu (படைவீடு) = Garrison), is a pastoral village located in Polur taluk, Tiruvannamalai district, Tamil Nadu, India Pin Code 632315. The place wherein Renugambal temple located is known as 'A.K.Padavedu' (Amman Koil Padavedu). Padavedu village is 2 km away from A.K. Padavedu and forming part of Padavedu village Panchayat. The nondescript village, surrounded by mist-soaked Javadu hills, sugarcane fields, banana plantations, brick kilns and paddy fields, is 137.3 km away from Chennai, 112 km from Pondicherry and 170.6 km from Bangalore and it is situated in a strategic point among Vellore (30.9 km), Thiruvannamalai (56.7 km) and Arani (20.5 km) in the Vellore – Polur (Thiruvannamalai) route. You will find a junction called Santhavasal (சாந்தவாசல்) at the 32nd km while proceeding from Vellore town. From Santhavasal the village is just 6 km away. Alternate route from Chennai is Arcot - Arani - Santhavasal through the bumpy road. The geographical coordinates of Padavedu are 12° 38' 54.5672" latitude and 79° 7' 58.2449" longitude and the elevation / altitude is 172 m from sea-level.<br />
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Sambuvaraya dynasty, who ruled in the 12th and 13th Centuries, had Munnur (முன்னூர்), Virinjipuram (விரிஞ்சிபுரம்) and Kanchipuram (காஞ்சிபுரம்) as their capitals. After becoming independent from Pandyas, Sambuvaraya chose Padaiveedu as their capital for its strategic defensive location i.e., the land bastioned by tall hills and dense forests. The formation of Malayalam forests (மலையாளக்காடு), Shenbaga grove (செண்பகத்தோப்பு) and Athtimalai (அத்திமலை) on the north-west, Kalimathu hillock (களிமத்துக் குன்று) on the south-west and Santhavasal reserve forests (சாந்தவாசல் காப்புக்காடு) on the south provided adequate defensive measures. Santhavasal was the entry point to the capital. </div>
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The scenic Javadu hill is surrounded by seventeen villages and lush green paddy fields and coconut groves. It is believed that the region was known as the <b><i>'land of thousand temples'</i></b> since it was the home to 1008 Shiva temples and 108 Vishnu temples. Now it is reduced to ten ancient (12th century) temples excluding the most popular Renugambal temple (ரேணுகாம்பாள் கோவில்). <br />
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Renugambal Temple (Renuka Paramesvari Temple (ரேணுகா பரமேஸ்வரி கோவில்) also known as Yellamma Temple (எல்லம்மா கோவில்), Padavedu was built by Sambuvaraya. It is one of the most important ‘Sakthi Sthalas’ in Thondainadu. Goddess Renugambal is self-manifested here and a Banalingam is present. Adi Sankarar has consecrated the Nanakarshna Chakra This south facing ancient temple exists even today. Three <i><u>inscriptions</u></i> have been copied from this temple.<br />
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Also there is a newly constructed temple. The outer walls of the granite structured vimana is decorated with bas relief images depicting puranic scenes. The goddess resides in the east facing sanctum. There are ardhamandapam, mahamandapam and there are shrines minor deities. <br />
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The Sri Venugopalaswami Kainkaryam Trust,(வேணுகோபாலஸ்வாமி கைங்கர்யம் டிரஸ்ட்), a part of TVS group, takes over the village about 20 years back and maintains the age old temples flawlessly. Number of temples were identified, unearthed and renovated by the trust during 1990s. Very few of these temples retain their original facade and the temples include:<br />
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<li>Lord Venugopala Swamy temple (வேணுகோலஸ்வாமி கோவில்) is located on the top of Rajagambhiramalai (hill top) popularly known as Kottaimalai (Athimalai). The temple opens only on Saturdays from 9 am to 4 pm. A ghat road runs through the dense forest and leads to the hill top. People used to travel by using the off-road wheeled tractor from the foothill to the hill top over this bumpy route.</li>
<li>Yoga Ramachandraswamy Temple (யோக இராமச்சந்திரஸ்வாமி கோவில்), Padavedu, constructed before 12th Century AD, is located 1 km west of Renugambal Temple. Lord Rama is uncommonly seated in Artha Padmasana posture showing “Chin Mudra” and his hand is not holding his bow (Kothandam). He is accompanied by his consort Seetha and brother Lakshmana by his side. Hanuman appears seated before Rama and engaged in reading Palm leaf manuscripts. Lord Rama is also appear seated and showing 'Chin Mudra' at Nedungunam and Ragunatha Samudram temples, both are located in Tiruvannamalai dist..</li>
<li>Lakshmi Narasimhar Temple (லட்சுமி நரசிம்மர் கோவில்), Ramanathapuram, Padavedu located on a hill top. Kamandala river (கமண்டல நதி) flows by the side of this temple. It was built by Mankonda Sambuvarayar (மண்கொண்ட சம்புவராயர்). Temple ruined due to natural disaster and now renovated by TVS Group trust. The bridge, built at a later date by the trust, connects the temple and the village. Also there is a cement path leading to the hill top. Goddess Lakshmi is seated on the right side of Narasimhar. </li>
<li>Velmurugan temple (வேல்முருகன் கோவில்) is located on top of Natchathra Kundru (நட்சத்திரக் குன்று) (Star Hill). A Vel (வேல்) (lance of Lord Muruga) is consecrated by the Bhogar (போகர் சித்தர்), one of the 18 Siddhars and Poojas are performed daily.</li>
<li>Chinna Kottai Varadhar Temple, Padavedu is located 2 km north west of Renugambal temple.</li>
<li>Kailasa Vinayagar Temple (கைலாச விநாயகர் கோவில்), Padavedu is located on the northern side of Renugambal temple with a distance of 2 km. The prime deity Lord Vinayagar is huge and has a height of five and a half feet and looks very majestic. The ancient temple built hundreds of years back was fully destroyed. The renovation work of this temple was carried out by TVS trust.</li>
<li>Rishi Temple (ரிஷி கோவில்) or (Lord Budha Temple) is located near Renugambal Temple. Rishi idol was retrieved at this spot and consecrated in the newly built temple.</li>
<li>Ammayappa Esvarar Temple, Padavedu, a 12th century temple, is considered as the most ancient temple and located one km west of Renugambal temple. It is the family deity of Sambuvarayas. The prime deity is Ammayappa Esvarar (Lord Shiva) and his consort is five feet tall goddess Aparnambigai. The temple totally buried due to sand storms and excavated. The procession deities hidden underground were also discovered and installed in Utsava Mandapam.</li>
<li>Periya Kottai Varadhar Temple, Padavedu is located 2 km north west of Renugambal temple.</li>
<li>Sadasivan Temple (சதாசிவன் கோவில்) is devoted to Lord Shiva and his consort and located in Vettagiripalayam, Padavedu. </li>
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Also there are few temples built and maintained by the trust:<br />
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<li>Kailasanathar Temple (கைலாசநாதர் கோவில்), Kailasaparai (கைலாசப் பாறை), Padavedu is totally in ruin and is located towards north on top of Kailasaparai hillock. There is no provision for flight of steps to climb. The prime deity is Lord Kailasanathar (Lord Shiva) who appears with his consort Parvathi in a ruined sanctum (no ceiling). The four hands of the Lords are lost. Also a Shivalingam is found. Vimanam is in Gajaprishta style. No pooja rituals are performed. </li>
<li>Subramanya Swamy Temple is located on a hill top, on the southern side of Arulmigu Renugambal Temple. The flight of three hundred well laid stone steps leads to this hill temple.</li>
<li>The village once had eight Anjaneya statues placed in eight cardinal directions to guard the place. Now only five of them remain. Installation of guardian deities is characteristic of the Vijayanagar empire. Veera Anjaneyar Temple is located on the way leading to Ramar temple from Renugambal temple and also located close to the Draupadhi Mandapam. Eight feet tall sthanaka Veera Anjaneyar appeared majestically in open air. Only 3 years back the Lord was consecrated to the present shrine. </li>
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The visitors can find several statues in the field. The statue of Hanuman is found under the banyan tree. The statues of Sri Venugopala with flute and his consort Rukmani are found, along with a heap of crumbled rocks, from ruined temple, in a lush green banana grove. The whole village is kept under the control of Department of Archeology and the people are not allowed to dig out any land except for cultivation. In spite of its illustrious history of Sambuvaraya and their Rajagambhiram fort, the village still remain as the <i><u>less traveled destination</u></i>.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yoga Ramachandraswamy Temple, Padavedu <span style="font-size: 12.8px;">PC Tamilnadu Tourism</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Venugopala Swamy temple, Rajagambhiramalai (Kottaimalai) <span style="font-size: 12.8px;">PC Tamilnadu Tourism</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kailasanathar Temple, Kailasaparai, Padavedu. PC Tamilnadu Tourism</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: justify;">Kailasa Vinayagar Temple, Padavedu </span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">PC Tamilnadu Tourism</span></td></tr>
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<b>Sambuvaraya Dynasty</b></div>
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Sambuvaraya kings (சம்புவராய மன்னர்கள்) hailed from Velir clans (வேளிர் குலம்). The Velirs were minor feudatory chieftains in the ancient Tamilakam. They were vassals as well as rivals of Chola, Chera and Pandyas and maintained marital relationships with them and enjoyed coronation rights. During 12th and 13th Centuries, the Sambuvarayar chieftains ruled Tondaimandalam region. Ethirili Chola Sambuvaraya (எதிரிலி சோழ சம்புவராயர்) , who ruled the northern part of Tondaimandalam, was.a vassal under Rajadhiraja Chola II (இரண்டாம் இராஜதிராஜ சோழர்) and Kulotunga Chola III (மூன்றாம் குலோத்துங்க சோழன்) and this chieftain hailed from the family of Sengeni. Omaindha Munnutruvan Palliyana Karanamanikyam (செங்கேணி ஓமைந்த முந்நூற்றுவன் பள்ளியன் கரணமாணிக்யம்) was his ancestor. His father was Sengeni Ammaiyappan Kannudaiya Peruman Vikrama Chola Sambuvarayar (செங்கேணி அம்மையப்ப கண்ணுடைய பெருமான் விக்கிரம சோழ சம்புவராயர்). He was decorated with the titles such as Virasani (விராசனி), Viruchola (வீறுசோழ) and Pallavandan (பல்லவந்தன்).<br />
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Sambuvarayas stationed their troops to maintain and guard at Padavedu fort and hence the name 'Padaiveedu' (garrison or fortified military post) and inscriptions mention this as <b>Marudaraisan Padaiveedu</b> (மருதரைசன் படைவீடு) (Cantonment of the king Madurai). At the time Sambuvarayas were under the patronage of Pandyas. During the reign of Jatavarma Sundara Pandya I ((Tamil: முதலாம் சடையவர்மன் சுந்தரபாண்டியன்) (1250 - 1268 A.D). Sundara Pandya Sambuvaraya was ruling the land as a feudatory from Kanchipuram (ref. inscription at Kalavai S.I.I. vol XII no. 446). </div>
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Vira Pandya Sambuvaraya, the son of Sundara Pandya Sambuvaraya was also a loyal feudatory of Pandya. Sambuvaraya became independent after the Delhi Sultans uprooted Pandyas. They made Padaiveedu as their capital and ruled till the rise of Vijayanagar kingdom in Karnataka.<br />
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Inscription A.R.E 18 of 1889 mention this region as the <b>'Rajagambhira Rajyam'</b> (இராஜகம்பீர இராஜ்யம்) named after <b>Rajagambhira Sambuvraya</b> (இராஜகம்பீர சம்புவராயர்) (1236 - 1268 A.D.) as well as <b>'Padavittu Rajyam'</b> (படைவீட்டு இராஜ்யம்). The bordering hillock around the Padaiveedu is mentioned in an inscription no. A.R.E no. 220 of 1919 as<b> 'Rajagambhiran Malai'</b> (இராஜகம்பீரன் மலை) which also named after Rajagambhira Sambuvrayar. The capital of this illustrious kingdom was mentioned as <b>'Marudaraisan Padaiveedu,'</b> in inscription S.I.I vol. 1, no. 81 Sambuvaraya rulers built their palace structures and protected them with <b>'Rajagambhiram Fort'</b> and a wide moat. </div>
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<b>Ekambaranatha Sambuvaraya</b> (ஏகாம்பரநாத சம்புவராயர்), a Sambuvaraya feudatory under Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya (மாறவர்மன் குலசேகர பாண்டியன்), ruled parts of Tondaimandalam independently from 1306 AD. An inscription from Tiruvannamalai district speaks about this subject. Ekambaranatha Sambuvaraya witnessed the invasion of Malik Kafur (மாலிக் காபூர்) in 1311 A.D and Kushru khan (குஸ்ரு கான்) in 1319 A.D. In 1322 <b>Ekambaranatha Venru Mankonda Sambuvaraya</b> (ஏகாம்பரநாத வென்று மண்கொண்ட சம்புவராயர்) (1322 - 1337 A.D.), the son and successor of Ekambaranatha Sambuvaraya became the ruler of a major portion of Tondaimandalam. The village donated to great vedic scholars by this Sambuvaraya king after he won in the war, hence the village is called Mankonda Kolathur (now termed as Mandakolathur) and the king was known in the name of Vendru Mankonda Sambuvaraya. Also during his reign in 1324 A.D. Mohamed Bin Tugklaq's army invaded the land and destroyed many Hindu shrines. Tiruvamathore (திருவாமத்தூர்) (Villupuram District) inscription informs about the renovation of the destroyed temples by the Sambuvarayar king. </div>
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Venru Mankonda Sambuvarayar was succeeded by <b>Rajanarayana Sambuvaraya I</b> (முதலாம் இராஜநாராயண சம்புவராயர்) (1337 - 1373 A.D.). In the year 1363 Vira-Kampana-Udaiyar (வீர கம்பண உடையார்), also known as Kumara Kampanna II (இரண்டாம் குமார கம்பண்ணா) , second son of Bukka Raya I (முதலாம் புக்க இராயர்) and the prince of Vijayanagar who ruled from Kanchipuram, attacked Rajanarayana Sambuvarayar I and captured him as the prisoner.<br />
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<b>Rajagambhiram fort</b><br />
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During 11th regnal year (1247 A.D.) Rajagambhira Sambuvarayar (1236 - 1268 A.D.) built Rajagambhiram fort on top of the hill, 'Rajagambhiran Malai.' An inscription on top of the hill informs about this. The fort straddled the entire hill. They have used granite boulders and 10 inches by 7 inches bricks, sand and lime mortar to construct the fort wall. The perimeter of the fort extends up to two kilometers. In fact this fort was hard to conquer for it can be accessed only through four gates and cannot be accessed easily through other means. It was constructed for surveillance and control the movements Delhi Sultanates and Vijayanagar rulers. The fort had provision for shelters for soldiers posted on surveillance duties. The rock surface do show pits for erecting poles for tents and they could have erected nine tents on top of the hill. They have also made provision for storing water in tanks as well as in natural ponds. They have also made one foot diameter by one foot deep pits for provision and use of mortar weapon. The fort also exhibits evidences for the existence of temples dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vinayaga.<br />
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The northern gate is presently called as Santhavasal (Santha gate). A hero stone is discovered near Santhavasal. The eastern gate is in ruined state and the western gate, named after Puvandai alias Cholakon, one of the Mudalis in the military service of Ethirili Chola Sambhuvaraya, is fully destroyed. There was a moat encircling the fort.<br />
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<b>Madura Vijaya ('The Conquest of Madurai')</b></div>
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Ganga Devi, the chief queen of Vira Kampana-Udaiyar and a leaned poetess, elaborately detailed the unapproachable nature of the Rajagambhiram fort in <b>'Madura Vijaya'</b> (மதுரா விஜயம்) ('The Conquest of Madurai'), also named as <i>'Vira Kamparaya Charitha'</i>, a Sanskrit historical poem composed by Ganga Devi. The poetic work was brought to public by G.Harihara Sastri and V Srinivasa Sastri of Trivandrum in 1916. Shri. S Thiruvankatachary translated the poetical work into English and Annamalai University published it in 1957. The poetical work includes nine chapters and the early chapters are devoted to the historical background of Vijayanagar empire i.e., rule of Bukka Raya I and the childhood and early life of Vira Kampana (Kumara Kampana). The chapters in the middle deal with the heroism of Vira Kampana and his invasion towards the south and the conquest of Kanchipuram. Bukka Raya I directed his prince to invade Tamil land. Vira Kampana marched towards Tamil land along with his three generals i.e., Gopana, Saluva Mangu and Muddappa. Ganga Devi accompanied her husband in his southern expedition.The first encounter was at the Rajagambhira Rajyam (Padaiveedu Rajyam). The poetic description is as follows:<br />
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<i>“King Kampana, then converted the Tamil king’s town into an encampment for his own force, and from there began to lay siege to the hill fortress named Rajagambhira (Rajagambhiramalai) in which the enemy had sought asylum.</i><br />
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<i>The sound of his war drums raised echoes from every cave of the hill and it looked as if the hill itself had begun to yell out in freight.</i><br />
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<i>With the flags flying in the direction of high winds, the hill (fort) gave the impression that it was greeting king (Kampana) and welcome him with its arms (the flags) to come up to its top.</i><br />
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<i>Again, fierce fighting commenced between the two sides, and the weapons falling down and shooting up, lit up both earth and sky by their resplendence.</i><br />
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<i>Heads severed by arrows resembled palmyra fruits as they fell down from the ramparts and caused an illusion that the balls belong to the deity of war (for playing (with).</i><br />
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<i>Like messengers (tax-collectors) sent by the strong hold themselves claiming the tolls for the entry (of the Karnataka troops) the stones let down from the catapults fell just in front of the king.</i><br />
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<i>The hill, with the houses lit up by fire from the missiles of bow-men looked like holding the lamp in readiness harati for the happy ceremony to mark the auspicious victory of the king.</i><br />
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<i>With all means (and chances of escape) coming completely blocked, the strong hold was subjected to such great distress that embryos of women, big with children slipped out at the very sight of the fierce jumping in, and people immersed in the river of blood of the slain prayed for their life.</i><br />
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<i>Sambuvaraya, the monarch withdrawn sword, came out of his palace in great anger, even as a snake with its lolling tongue might come out of a mole-hill.</i><br />
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<i>Though many a soldier of valour eagerly came forward to fight saying “let me do it,” King Kampana preferred to face the Sambuvaraya himself.</i><br />
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<i>With forepart of their body bent and eyes fixed, the two kings sword in hand, stood still for a moment like a picture on a piece of painting.</i><br />
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<i>The gods were thankful for the total absence of winking their eyes, as they looking on with fixed gaze, the flight (of the two horses) their bodies divided at the waist.</i><br />
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<i>Kampana’s sword, reflecting as it the image of the Sambuvaraya monarch, looked like a pregnant daughter about to give birth to a husband for the celestial nymphs.</i><br />
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<i>Then escaping deftly a sword thrust, King Kampana despatched the Sambuvaraya (monarch) as a guest to Indra’s city.</i><br />
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<i>Having thus reduced (killed) Sambuvaraya in the field of battle, King Kampana received the decree of his father that he should rule (the territory he conquered).”</i><br />
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From the above poem it is presumed that there was a palace and huge fort wall, both of which were guarded by large number of soldiers, wielded by bow and arrows and lances. The citadel located in the Rajagambhiram hill was sieged and the ruler was stabbed to death by Vira Kampana in 1361 A.D. After this Vira Kampana marched to Kanchipuram and conquered.<br />
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In 1311 A.D. Malik Kafur attacked Madurai and plundered all temples. Ghiyasuddin Tughlak made second invasion to Madurai and established Madurai Sultanate. Madurai suffered a lot during 1335 - 1371 A.D. The temple remain closed for nearly 40 years. Madura Vijaya details the sufferings of Hindus in the hands of Madurai Sultans. Hoysala ruler Veera Vallala encountered with Sultan and was killed in the battle. The huge army of Vira Kampana stormed Madurai Sultanate and Vira Kampana killed the Madurai Sultan Qurbat Hasan Kangu in the battle. Later the entire Madurai country and Chola country were included with Vijayanagar kingdom. Two divisions namely Rajagambhira Rajyam and Tiruvathigai Rajyam were formed.</div>
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<b>Padavedu Excavations</b><br />
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The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archeology conducted excavations in Padavedu in the year 1992-93 at two sites namely Vetagiripalayam (வேட்டைகிரிபாளையம்) and Kottaikaraimedu (கோட்டைக்கரைமேடு). The existence of the palace and the fort wall was ascertained by the Department of Archeology during excavations. A mound, just on the west of Padavedu village, was popularly known as 'Kottaimedu' (கோட்டைமேடு). Kottaimedu is located one km away from Yoga Ramachandraswamy temple. Presently the Kottaimedu lands have been converted into cultivable patta land and paddy, sugarcane and plantain crops are cultivated. Two Vishnu idols namely Chinna Kottai Varadar (சின்னக்கோட்டை வரதர்) (Varadar of Small Fort) and Periya Kottai Varadar (பெரியகோட்டை வரதர்) (Varadar of big fort) were found near the Kottaimedu mound. Sculptures of Kottai Talayari (கோட்டைத் தலையாரி), Viraanjaneya (வீரஞ்சநேயர்), Mahaganapathy (மகாகணபதி) and two Tirthankaras (தீர்த்தங்கரர்கள்) were discovered in 'Kottaimedu' itself. The sculptures found in these locations clearly lead the archaeologists to conclude that there was a fort at the site. Further to this, occurrence of bricks in huge quantities as well as sizable number of ring wells also suggest the presence of fort at the site. The traces of fort gates on the Kottaimalai (Athimalai) (அத்திமலை) or Rajagambhiram hill and the existence of Venugopala temple and brick graneries assignable to Nayak period suggest the scholars to conclude about the fort.<br />
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The team laid 14 trenches. At Vetagiripalayam two trenches were laid to fully expose the age old brick structure appeared out due to rain. At the first trench they discovered terracotta tube with a tiny hole (bellows tube) (துருத்திக் குழாய்). It could have been the mechanical device, made in clay, used as blow pipe for glass making. The glass slag piece retrieved from this trench supports this view. The second trench dug to the west of the first trench exposed the relics of the brick wall fully.<br />
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At Kottaikaraimedu twelve trenches were laid. This site is marked with the occurrence of brick structure, with the channels used for bringing drinking water and draining out sewage water and ring wells. They have used granite boulders to construct both the sides of the wall and filled the middle portion with the mixture of clay and crushed brick stones and they could ascertain the width as 1 m 15 cm and the height of the brick wall structure could not be ascertained. The site is marked by the presence of smoking pipes, Sultan coins and a number of decorated red ware shreds and bangle pieces were collected from this site.<br />
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On the basis of cultural sequences of these sites, the archaeologists have classified as period one and period two. The date assignable to period one could be between 13th and 14th Century A.D. The date assignable to period two could be between 14th and 16th century A.D.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Structural Remains and Flooring PC Dept. of Archeology</td></tr>
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<b>Inscription</b><br />
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S.I.I Vol. V, No.78. on the east and north bases of the Ammaiappa esvara Temple, Padavedu</div>
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Inscription S.I.I. vol V, no. 78 dated - <span style="text-align: left;">on the </span><span style="text-align: left;">nakshatra Revati and </span><span style="text-align: left;">Monday, the seventh lunar day of the former half of the month of Karkataka, </span>in the year, which was current after the expiration of the Saka year 1180 (1258 A.D.), and records a grant, which Rajagambhira-Sambuvarayan made to the temple of Ammaiappa esvara. The name of the object of the grant must be contained in the final portion of the first line, which is buried underground. The donor is evidently identical with that Rajagambhira-Sambuvarayan, who is mentioned in a Tirumalai inscription (No.74), which seems to be dated in Saka 1157-58. It may be further conjectured, that the Ammaiappesvara Temple at Padavedu had received its name from Ammaiappan or Ammaiyappan, one of the birudas of another Sambuvarayan, who was a contemporary and probably a relation of Rajagambhira-Sambuvarayan.</div>
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S.I.I Vol. V, No.79. on the south-east of the Ammaiappa esvara Temple, Padavedu</div>
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This inscription is dated during the reign of Vira-Devaraya-maharayar (of Vijayanagara) and <span style="text-align: left;">On the tenth day of the month of Masi of the Pramadicha</span> (i.e., Saka 1356) (1434 A.D.). It records a grant <span style="text-align: left;">to the lord Ammaiappa-nayanar of </span>the Ammaiappa eswara Temple. The name of the donor is obliterated (Madhayavanar?). This meritorious gift shall last as long as the moon and the sun. He who shall injure this meritorious gift, [shall incur the sin of one has killed] a black cow on the bank of the Ganga.</div>
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S.I.I Vol. V, No.80. on the south wall of the Ammaiappa esvara Temple, Padavedu</div>
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This inscription is dated during the reign of Vira-Devaraya-maharayar (of Vijayanagara) and on the 2nd day of the month of Adi on the Ananda year,. (i.e.,Saka 1357). It records the gift of a village to the lord Ammaiappa-nayanar of the Ammaiappa esvara Temple. The middle portion is defaced by three cracks. The donor is Ulagalantha Suryadeva of Kalavai.</div>
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S.I.I Vol. V, No.81. on the east wall of the Somanatha eswara Temple, Padavedu</div>
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This inscription is dated on the day of (the nakshatra) Uttiradam, which corresponds to the Yoga Ayushmat and to Saturday, the thirteenth lunar day of the former half of the month of Simha of the Sukla year, which was current after the Saka year 1371 (had passed) (1449 A.D.), and during the reign of Virapratapa Praudha-Immadi-Devaraya-maharayar. This is the latest hitherto-known date of Devaraja II. In the preserved portion, mention is made of the kingdom of Padaividu (Padaivitttu rajyam),which belonged to Tondai-mandalam, of the right and left had castes and of the Somanatha esvara Temple at Padaividu.</div>
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<b>How to Get There?</b><br />
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Nearest Bus stand: Padavedu is located around 30.9 km away from Vellore and around 56.7 kilometer away from its district head quarter Tiruvannamalai. Santhavasal (Padavedu) is well connected with major nearby towns like Arani, Arcot, Vellore and Thiruvannamalai and Polur. Frequent buses ply to Santhavasal from Kancheepuram, Vellore, Polur, Arcot and Arani.<br />
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Nearest Railway station: The nearest railway station to Padavedu is Aliyabad which is located in and around 11.5 km distance. Both Arni Road railway station and Vellore Cantt. railway station are 28.8 km away from Padavedu..<br />
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Nearest Airport: Chennai airport is the nearest airport located at a distance of 139.7 km. Bengaluru airport is also a nearer airport located at a distance of 211.8 km. </div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li style="text-align: justify;">Discussion why pandyas lost to kafur. in Ponniyin Selvan Varalaatru Peravai (http://ponniyinselvan.in/forum/discussion/47339/why-pandyas-lost-to-kafur/p1)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Land of a thousand temples. Anusha Parthasarathy. The Hindu June 27, 2013</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Maduravijayam. Gangadevi. Tr. by Tiruvenkatachari. Canto IV, Slokas 64 - 83.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Madura Vijayam Wikipedia</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Padavedu Excavation. Natana Kasinathan. Asst. by Abdulmajeed, Sampath KS, Selvaraj S, and Kalaivanan M, State Department of Archaeology, Chennai. 1993 (http://210.212.62.26/pdf_files/books/PADAVEDU%20EXCAVATION%20part%20002.pdf) and (http://210.212.62.26/pdf_files/books/PADAVEDU%20EXCAVATION%20part%20003.pdf)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Padavedu, Thiruvannamalai. Tamilnadu Tourism. March 24, 2016. (http://tamilnadu-favtourism.blogspot.in/2016/03/padavedu-thiruvannamalai.html)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sambuvaraya Wikipedia</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Sambuvarayar period stone inscription found The Hindu. April 07, 2002</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Visit to Padavedu Kottaimalai Sri Venugopala Swamy Temple. Raju's Temple Visits. June 13, 2008 (https://shanthiraju.wordpress.com/2008/06/13/kottamalai/)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Visit to Padavedu Temples. Raju's Temple Visits. May 26, 2008. (https://shanthiraju.wordpress.com/2008/05/26/padavedu/)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">What is India. South Indian Inscriptions. Part B: Tamil and Grantha Inscriptions. V Inscriptions at Padavedu (http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_1/padavedu.html)</li>
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<b>YouTube</b> </div>
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Mann Pesum Sarithiram epi 290
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Kottaimalai Trip<br />
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Vel Temple at Padavedu<br />
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com2Padavedu, Tamil Nadu 632315, India12.6599855 79.11261960000001612.652239 79.102534600000013 12.667731999999999 79.12270460000002tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-11891640039886814782017-02-19T08:21:00.001-08:002017-02-19T08:21:38.430-08:00Naviram Hills (Parvathamalai) and Chieftain Nannan as Portrayed in Sangam Poem Malaipadukadam <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Naviram Hill (Nanviramalai) (நவிரமலை) is one of the hill range described in Malaipadukadam (மலைபடுகடாம்), a Sangam poetic work in Pattuppattu (பத்துப்பாட்டு) anthology. Before two thousand years ago the Javadhu hill-range (ஜவ்வாதுமலை), an extension of the Eastern Ghats comprising the modern Tiruvannamalai and Vellore districts of Tamil Nadu, was known as Palkunrakkottam ('பல்குன்றக் கோட்டம்'). <span style="line-height: 16.8667px;">Thondai Nadu (தொண்டைநாடு), a historical region situated in the northern part of Tamil Nadu, was divided into 24 districts or 'Kottams.' </span>Palkunrakkottam was one among the 24 kottams. Palkunrakkottam means the land surrounded by hillocks <span style="line-height: 16.8667px;">(குன்று சூழிருக்கை நாடு). </span>The Javadhu hill range extends about 50 miles (80 km) wide and 20 miles (32 km) long and lies at about 2350 feet to 3500 feet above sea level. In the opinion of U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, the Naviram hill range, situated in Thenmathimangalam village, Kalasapakkam taluk, Tiruvannamalai district, Tamil Nadu, India, is now known as "Parvathamalai. Most of the scholars agree his view. Lines <span style="text-align: center;">81-84 and 579 of </span>Malaipadukadam refers Naviram hills and "Kariyundikkadavul," (<span style="text-align: center;">காரி உண்டிக் கடவுள) "</span>the god who drank poison," as the Lord of Naviram Hills.<br />
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நீரகம் பனிக்கும் அஞ்சுவரு கடுந்திறல்</div>
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பேரிசை நவிர மேஎ யுறையும்</div>
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காரி உண்டிக் கடவுள தியற்கையும் (மலைபடுகடாம்.81-84)</div>
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(Know the greatness of the god who resides in Naviram who ate poison, who causes the earth surrounded with water to tremble!)</div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">கழைவளர் நவிரத்து மீமிசை ஞெரேரென (மலைபடுகடாம்</span><span style="text-align: justify;">,579)</span></div>
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Nannan showers unspoiled wealth like the rain showers on Naviram Mountain, the lord of the country surrounded by mountains... )</div>
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The present presiding deity of the hill temple of Parvatamalai (பர்வதமலை) is named in Sanskrit as "Kalakanteshvarah" (<span style="text-align: center;">கா</span>லகண்டேஸ்வரர்) - 'the god whose neck is dark blue.' The hill temple is popularly known as Lord Mallikarjunaswamy (மல்லிகார்ச்சுணசுவாமி) (Lord Shiva) temple. The resemblance of the name of the presiding deity stands as evidence for assigning Naviram Hill as Parvatamalai. Parvathamalai is also known as Kandhamalai, Mallikarjunamalai, Naviramalai, Parvathagiri, Sanjeevigiri, Thenkailayam and Trisulagiri.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">அடிக்கொரு லிங்கம் அண்ணாமலை,பிடிக்கொரு லிங்கம் பர்வதமலை</span></span><br />
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Palkunrakkottam was ruled by Nannan, son of Nannan, the Velir Chieftain of Chenkanmä (பல்குன்றக் கோட்டத்துச் செங்கண்மாத்துவேண்மான் நன்னன் சேய் நன்னன்), a Velir chieftain. Naviram Hill formed part of his country. He was also the lord of <span style="text-align: center;">Cheyaru valley.</span><br />
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குன்று சூழ் இருக்கை நாடு கிழவோனே</div>
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(Nannan, the lord of the country surrounded by mountains)</div>
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Malaipadukadam narrates Naviram hill as Nannan's hill. The poet Perunkausikanar addresses a group of Kuttar and advises them to seek the patronage of king Nannan son of Nannan whose territory includes Naviram Hill. Chenkanma (செங்கண்மா) was the capital of Nannan's country. Chenkanma is presently identified as Chengam (செங்கம்), a town in Chengam taluk in Tiruvannamalai district of Tamil Nadu state, India.<br />
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<b>Parvatamalai (பர்வதமலை)</b></div>
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The geographical coordinates of Parvathamalai are 12°26'11"N latitude and 78°58'19"E longitude. The steep vertical rock cliff is 1219 m (4000 feet) high from sea level and spans around 5500 acres. The hill is 20 km from Polur 25 km from Chengam, 25 km from Kadaladi and 35 km (approx) from Tiruvannamalai.. Chengam, Kadaladi, Tiruvannamalai and Polur are located on the south eastern side of the Javadhu hills.<br />
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<b>How to Get There?</b></div>
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There are two routes to reach on top of Parvathamalai hill. One route is through Thenmathimangalam village located in Polur - Chengam road. Another route is through Kadaladi (north of Tiruvannamalai). Kadaladi route is shorter than Thenmadhimangalam route. People find it is easy to climb through Thenmathimangalam route.The flight of steps leading to the hill commences from foot hills and there is a balipeeta as well as shrines of Vinayaka and Subramaniyar with consorts Valli and Devayani.</div>
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However both Thenmathimagalam and Kadaladi routes meet at the common junction and from there it is a single route leading to the summit of the hill. It is the steep and rocky terrain. Trekking on top of Parvathamalai cliff is a very challenging task. A steep climb offering more than 1219 m (4000 feet) vertical feet . The rough terrain path has iron rod steps, track steps, ladder steps, and sky steps (Agaya padi) usually not found at other such sacred mountains. Kadapparai (crow bar) path section is considered as the most toughest phase of the hike. Iron rods are planted after drilling the rock and the chains between the rods help the trekkers to cross the sharp ascent. The view on the way up is scenic with medicinal flora. Mounaguruswamy Ashram is located near to the temple. Feeding the devotees (Annadhanam) is taking place during full moon day occasions.<br />
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The prime deity of the hill-temple is Sri Mallikarjunaswamy and goddess Sri Bramarambigai also known as Sri Akilandesvari amman. The temple is not protected by doors or compound wall. Surprisingly no priests are available to perform puja rituals or ablution. The devotees is free to do puja and ablution. The hill attracts a lot of devotees every full moon day.<br />
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<b>Chenkanma (Chengam) செங்கண்மா (செங்கம்)</b><br />
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Chenkanma was the capital of Nannan son of Nannan. At present this Sangam era town is known as Chengam and is located in Chengam taluk in Tiruvannamalai district of Tamil Nadu state, India PIN 606701. Chengam lies on the geographical coordinates of 10.15654°N and 76.208982°E and the elevation / altitude is 272 meter (892 feet). It is located 36 km towards west from district head quarters Tiruvannamalai. There is no railway station near to Chengam in less than 10 km. However<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Katpadi Jn. Railway station is the major railway station located 92 km from to Chengam.<br />
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Nannan, son of Nannan, the Velir Chieftain of Chenkanmä of Palkunrakkottam ruled the town Chenkanma. Over the period of time the name Chenkanma transformed into Chengam. Dr. U.V. Swaminatha Ayyar and other scholars unanimously hold this view. Inscriptions also refer this town as Chenkanma as well as Chengama. Literally Chenkanma in Tamil means the animal with red eyes (Chenkan = red eye and Ma = animal). Perhaps this town might have named after an animal. The town according to Malaipadukadam was located on the southern bank of the river Cheyaru. Present town also located on the southern bank of the river Cheyyaru.<br />
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இரை தேர்ந்து இவரும் கொடுந்தாள் முதலையொடு </div>
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திரைபடக் குழிந் தகல்அகழ் கிடங்கின்</div>
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வரை புரை நிவப்பின் வான்தோய் இஞ்சி</div>
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உரை செல வெறுத்த அவன் மூதூர் மாலையும் </div>
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"Listen now to what I have to tell you about his town with sky-high fort walls surrounded by a wide moat with waves, where crocodiles with curved legs search for prey!" (Malaipadukadam 89 - 94)</div>
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வியல் இடம் பெறாஅ விழுப்பெரு நியமத்து … </div>
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யாறு எனக் கிடந்த தெருவின் சாறு என</div>
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இகழுநர் வெரூஉம் கவலை மறுகின்</div>
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கடல் என கார் என ஒலிக்கும் சும்மையொடு</div>
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மலைஎன மழை என மாடம் ஓங்கி</div>
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துனிதீர் காதலின் இனிது அமர்ந்து உறையும்</div>
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பனி வார் காவின் பல் வண்டு இமிரும்</div>
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நனி சேய்த்தன்று அவன் பழவிறல் மூதூர் (480 – 487)</div>
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"The streets are wide as rivers and the opulent markets are huge. People gather together like constant festivities. The forked streets cause fear in enemies. There are loud sounds like those from the ocean and the rain. In the tall mansions that are like mountains and clouds, there are loving people. There are groves with dew where flowers are swarmed by bees in his ancient, old town that is not far away." (Malaipadukadam 480 - 487)</div>
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பொருந்தாத் தெவ்வர் இருந்தலை துமிய</div>
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பருந்துபடக் கடக்கும் ஒள் வாள் மறவர்</div>
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கருங்கடை எஃகம் சாத்திய புதவின்</div>
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அருங்கடி வாயில் ... (488 - 491)</div>
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"The protected gates of Nannan is guarded by warriors who chopped the black heads of enemies for kites to descend. The warriors lean their bright spears with black handles on the walls of the gate.." (Malaipadukadam 488 - 491)</div>
<b>Cheyaru (Cheyyaru) சேயாறு (செய்யாறு)</b><br />
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Cheyyaru also known as Ceyaru is a river which originates in Javadhu hills and flows through Tiruvannamalai district before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. Northeast and Southwest monsoons bring most of its rain and is the major source of irrigation for several villages, including the town Cheyyaru. It is the main tributary of Palar river. In Malaipadukadam, the river Cheyyar is called "Cheyaru," the river of Cey, usually understood to be Murugan (The word Cey means "ed" and "son" Today the river goes by the name Shanmuganadhi, the river of Shanmuga or Muruga.<br />
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The guiding bard gives a detailed account on the ways and means to reach Nannan Sei Nannan's ancient town situated on the bank of Cheyaru. The lines 474 - 477 points out the prosperous Cheyaru river:<br />
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வனைகலத் திகிரியின் குமிழி சுழலும்</div>
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துனை செலல் தலைவாய் ஓவு இறந்து வரிக்கும்</div>
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காணுநர் வயாஅம் கட்கு இன் சேயாற்றின்</div>
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யாணர் ஒரு கரைக் கொண்டனிர் கழிமின்</div>
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"If you see a rushing stream with bubbles and whirlpools that whirl like wheels of potters, go on the other side of the prosperous river Cheyaru which is sweet to behold." (Malaipadukadam 474 - 477)</div>
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<b>Malaipadukadam மலைபடுகடாம்</b></div>
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Malaipadukadam (Tamil: மலைபடுகடாம்) (also known as Kuttar Arruppadai (கூத்தர் ஆற்றுப்படை) is one of the poetic work forming part of <span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px;">Patiṉeṇmelkaṇakku</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px;"> (</span><span style="font-family: inherit;">Tamil</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px;">: </span><span lang="ta" style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px;" xml:lang="ta">பதினெண்மேல்கணக்கு</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px;">) collection and further categorized under </span>Pattuppattu (Tamil: பத்துப்பாட்டு) sub-collection (Ten Idylls). <span style="text-align: center;">The </span>meaning of the <span style="text-align: center;">title</span> Malaipadukadam is the "rut that produced by the mountain." The author is Kousikanar of Iranyamuttam Perungunrur (இரணிய முட்டத்துப் பெருங்குன்றூர்ப் பெருங்கெளசிகனார்). The lengthy Sangam anthology comprise 583 lines of poetry in the Aciriyappa meter.<br />
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<i>Arruppadai (ஆற்றுப்படை)</i><br />
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Among the 'puram' poems, the Arruppadai (ஆற்றுப்படை) had been the earliest. In Pattuppattu there are five Arruppadai poems i.e., Tirumurugarruppadai (திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை), Porunararruppadai (பொருநராற்றுப்படை), Perumpanarruppadai (பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை), Cirupanarruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை) and Malaipadukadam (மலைபடுகடாம்)..The title of the poem is 'Malaipadukadam' is unique since this poem in the Pattuppattu anthology do not have the Arruppadai suffix.<br />
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Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil Sangam grammatical treatise, prescribes rules for the different types of poetic composition. The third book is Porul adhikaram. Of its nine sections, five deals with aham, one section with puram (புறம்), one each with similes, prosody and idioms. The puram section is concerned with the activities connected with war and also grouped into seven categories or 'tinai.' Patan tinai prescribes grammar to praise the victorious king. Arruppadai poems fall in this category.<br />
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கூத்தரும் பாணரும் பொருநரும் விறலியும்</div>
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ஆற்றிடைக் ஆட்சி யுறழத் தோன்றிப்</div>
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பெற்ற பெருவளம் பெறாஅர்க் கறிவுறி இச்</div>
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சென்றுபய னெதிரச் சொன்ன பக்கமும் </div>
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(Tolkappiyam தொல்காப்பியம்-1037)</div>
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Arruppadai poems, the unique Sangam literary form, where in one bard or the minstrel (பாணர்), who is returning with bounteous gifts from a Maecenas or Patron (usually the king / chieftain). In all arruppadai poems the bard or the minstrel gained immense opportunity to detail the nature of 'Sangam' terrain', (its beauty, fertility, and other resources) and its territory to be traversed. There is an emphasis on the tedious journey to reach the fort palace of the Maecenas. Among the five arruppadai poems, one of them differs from the others i.e., Tirumurugarruppadai, which directs devotees not to a Maecenas but to God Murugan.<br />
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<i>Sangam Era Musicians</i><br />
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The Sangam musicians were generically categorized into Kuttar (கூத்தர்), Panar (பாணர்), Porunar (பொருநர்), and Viraliar (விறலியர்). The Kuttar were dancers and actors; the Panar were both vocalists and instrumentalists; Porunars, also known as war-bards, were well versed in martial music like Parani (பரணி) and they used to travel with warriors. Viraliyars were female dancers cum singers. Porunars were further categorized into Erkalam Paduvar (ஏற்களம் பாடுவார்), Porkkalam Paduvar (போர்க்களம் பாடுவார்) and Parani Paduvar (பரணி படுவார்). The Panar had the following group: Isaippanar (இசைப்பாணர்), Yazhppanar (யாழ்ப்பாணர்) and Mandaippanar (மண்டைப்பாணர்). Maduraikanchi mentions about Perumpanar (பெரும்பாணர்). The panars mentioned in Malaipadukadam were bestowed with knowledge and skills of the 7 notes and 3 octaves. Pattuppattu books also describes Yazh, the stinged instrument of the Sangam period. Perumpanars (பெரும்பாணர்) played Periyazh (பேரியாழ்) (21 strings) and Sirupanar (சிறுபாணர்) played Seeriyazh (சீறியாழ்) (7 strings). The other yazhs (யாழ்) played by panars include Makarayazh (மகரயாழ்) (19 strings), Sagodayazh (சகோடயாழ்) (14 strings) and Sengottuyazh (செங்கோட்டுயாழ்) (7 strings).<br />
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<img alt="Yazh+2.jpg (300×473)" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizbn8bDUE7yRs79YvRBRLHXPyhEdZeYiPA8cdq0FnA4xx3050sXSUyDiOYhQgTp3LedFZ00HlPcd4l1mlvIs-KWrzOkzdi5S6fw1oKLh5l_qz7a0oa7hs4bAOjIb2mfo_xGnmHCc_2Bh8/s1600/Yazh+2.jpg" /></div>
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The wind instruments mentioned in Malaipadukadam include 1. Pili (பிளி) also known as Siruchinam (சிறுசினம்) - a small trumpet; 2. Kodu (கோடு) a.k.a Kombu (கொம்பு), letter 'S' shaped long trumpet; 3. Kanvidutumbu (கண்விடுதும்பு), a flute like instrument with larger circumference and appears like the trunk of an elephant; and 4. Kuruntumbu (குறுந்தும்பு),. a small flute. Pattuppattu refers several percussion instruments and Murasu (முரசு) was the most common instrument and was in use on all occasions. Malaipadukadam details about the construction and tuning of Murasu. The top of the instrument was covered with skin and tied with leather straps. It also mentions about Muzhavu (முழவு), Aguli (ஆகுளி) or Siruparai (சிறுபறை) and Tattai (தட்டை) or Karadijai (கரடிஜை) . It also bring outs a drum known as Ellari (எல்லரி) also known in varied names as Salli (சல்லி) or Sallikai (சல்லிகை). The instrument parai, made out of bamboo stick produced sound resembling the croaking of frog or the bear.</div>
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The poem opens with the poet Kousikanar of Iranyamuttam addressing to the chief of the clan of artists or ''Panars" or bards accompanied by their dancers or viralis. The length of the poem is 583 lines and the poet devotes about 380 lines to describe the harmful mountain path, (துன்பமான மலைநாட்டு பாதை) leading through village of forest dwellers (கானவர் குடி), village on the path (வழியிலுள்ள சிற்றூர்), Kariyundikkadavul temple (காரியுண்டிக் கடவுள் கோவில்), sparse woodland in the mountain (குன்றுகளில் உள்ள குறுங்காடு), Nannan's secondary forest (நன்னனின் கானெயில்), Memorial stone area (நடுகற்கள் அமைந்த பகுதி), enemy's land (பகைவர் நிலம்), Mullai (craggy) land (முல்லை நிலம்), Protected outskirts of craggy land (நாடு காவலமைந்த முல்லை நில புறங்காடு), Farming land (மருத நிலம்), Cheyaru river (சேயாறு) to reach Nannan's abode in the mountain country (நன்னனது மலைநாடு). Nannan would welcome them promptly. The song describes many facets of life in different communities in the hero’s land. There are exquisite descriptions of nature. The poet compares the mountain range to a herd of elephants. The tall Naviram peak resembles like the mighty elephants.<br />
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<b>Sound scape of Malaipadukadam</b></div>
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In all arruppadai poems there is an emphasis on the tedious journey to the abode of the king or chieftain. The poem also stresses the abundance of Nannan's mountain including hills, forests and farm lands. and narrates vast kingdom of Nannan. The poem details the weary and dangerous way as well as many facets of life in the different communities in Nannan’s land and the journey is marked by short stay at strange habitats. Sound, in Malaipadukadam (lines 292 to 348), is often expressed in habitat. The poet employs the word Chummai (சும்மை) and skillfully brings out the connection between the habitats and the sound scape:<br />
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The bard begins with the musical sound (இன் இசை) produced by celestial maidens (வான் அர மகளிர்) by scooping water with their hands while bathing in waterfalls. The poem draws comparison of the sound with the drums of the dancers. Another din produced is the strident noise (புரிவளைப் பூசல்) of the hunters (மீமிசைப் பணவைக் கானவர்) by encircling the trapped elephant. The weeping (அழுகை) of wounded hunters (<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">கானவர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span> attacked by spines (<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">எஃகு உறு முள்</span></span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span> of the hedgehog (எய்) is heard and the songs of Kodichiyar (<span style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">கொடிச்சியர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span> women who comfort their wounded hunters (husbands) (கொடுவரி பாய்ந்தென கொழுநர் மார்பில் நெடுவசி விழுப்புண்). In the tall mountains, the young women who raise confusing/protective noises (இடி உமிழ் தழங்கு குரல்) (interpreted by commentators as ‘vengai’, ‘vengai’ meaning ‘tiger’ ‘tiger’ (<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">‘</span><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">புலி</span><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">புலி</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 16.8667px;">)</span>, when she was leaped and attacked by a bright colored mighty tiger (ஒண் கேழ் வயப்புலி பாய்ந்தென). Her spouse went to get food and take care of her. Poet compare noise with the the painful roaring trumpets of a naive, tender-headed pregnant cow elephant and her herd (கன்று அரைப்பட்ட கயந்தலை மடப்பிடி). The aggrieved black-fingered female monkey (கைக் கோள் மறந்த கருவிரல் மந்தி) and her troop (கிளை) produced continuous loud sounds inarticulately (களையாப் பூசல்) when she lost the clung of her untrained baby monkey (கல்லாப் பார்ப்பு) which fell into the rock crevices (அருவிடர் வீழ்ந்த). <br />
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Aboriginal hunters (கானவர்) bring forth joyous sound when they harvested huge honeycombs (தேன்கூடு) with honey (தேன்) collected by bees honey (பெரும் பயன் தொகுத்த தேம் கொள் கொள்ளை) on the tall mountain after climbing on bamboo ladders (நிலை பெய்து இட்ட மால்பு நெறி ஆக). The hunters, who drank liquor during the day (நறவு நாட் செய்த குறவர்), celebrate happily since they have destroyed forts of their enemies (அருங் குறும்பு எறிந்த கானவர் உவகை), and that the loot got will serve as gifts to Nannan with perfect spears (திருந்து வேல் அண்ணற்கு). The hunters drink liquor and celebrate loudly (கல்லென) with kuravai dances in the sky-high mountain (வான் தோய் மீமிசை அயரும் குரவை), with their matrons, to the accompaniment of small, loud deer hide parai drums (மான் தோல் சிறு பறை கறங்க). There are roaring sounds produced by rivers with rocks as they enter rocky crannies (கல் யாறு ஒலிக்கும் விடர் முழங்கு இரங்கு இசை), appearing like beautiful chariots riding in a row (நல் எழில் நெடுந்தேர் இயவு வந்தன்ன).<br />
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There are clamors of mahouts (பாகர்கள்) (elephant trainers or keepers), who speak different professional language (விரவு மொழி பயிற்றும் பாகர் ஓதை). The mahouts bind their fierce elephants to tall posts to reduce their rage, after saving them when they fell into huge whirlpools. The rattle sounds raised by girls by rattling bamboo (ஒலி கழைத் தட்டை புடையுநர்), to scare the parrot from millet fields and protect standing millet crops (கிளி கடி மகளிர் விளிபடு பூசல்). The tumultuous sound heard from the fight with great rage between the fine bull with large hump, that strayed from its herd (இனத்தின் தீர்ந்த துளங்கு இமில் நல் ஏறு) and the male elk that came from the mountains (மலைத் தலைவந்த மரையான்) and this fight ruined thick-petaled kulavi flowers and kurinji plants (வள் இதழ்க் குளவியும் குறிஞ்சியும் குழைய). The vocal sound made by boys (மகாஅர்), who thrash the seeds of sweet arils (bulbs) of the jack fruit (பலாச்சுளை) that was dropped on the ground by many who ate the fruits (வண் கோட் பலவின் சுளை விளை தீம் பழம் உண்டு), by driving calves (கன்று கடாஅவுறுக்கும்) with the ladle like petals of fragrant gloriosa (kanthal) flowers (காந்தட் துடுப்பின் கமழ் மடல் ஓச்சி). The typical noises of machines which crush sugarcane with nodes rapidly (ஞெரேரெனக் கழை கண் உடைக்கும் கரும்பின் ஏத்தமும்) in all the factories (ஆலைதொறும்), that appear like the sounds of rain (மழை கண்டன்ன). The young women pound the millet by singing Vallai song (a kind of folk song) (தினை குறு மகளிர் இசைபடு வள்ளையும்) The beating of parai drums produced beat sound to chase the pillaging and plundering pigs ( பன்றிப் பறையும்) and protect turmeric plants and chēmpu yam (Colocasia antiquorum, Colocasia esculenta) (சேப்பங்கிழங்கு) crops (சேம்பும் மஞ்சளும் ஓம்பினர் காப்போர்).<br />
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... ... ... .................. குன்றகச் சிலம்பும்</div>
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என்று இவ் அனைத்தும் இயைந்து ஒருங்கு ஈண்டி</div>
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அவலவும் மிசையவும் துவன்றிப் பல உடன்</div>
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அலகைத் தவிர்த்த எண் அருந் திறத்த</div>
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<b><span style="color: red;">மலைபடு கடாஅம்</span></b> மாதிரத்து இயம்ப (Malaipadukadam 344 - 348)</div>
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"All these and other sounds (குன்றகச் சிலம்பும் என்று இவ் அனைத்தும்) , countless in numbers (அலகைத் தவிர்த்த எண்) join together (இயைந்து ஒருங்கு ஈண்டி), are heard in the canyons (அவலவும்) and peaks (மிசையவும்) in all directions (மாதிரத்து இயம்ப). The sounds join together and ooze from the mountain (மலைபடு கடாஅம்) like musth flowing from a bull elephant, rare to hear alone."<br />
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<b>Food scape in Malaipadukadam</b><br />
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Food is the perennial theme in Sangam arruppadai poems. The guiding bard praises about the benevolence of the king or chieftain to the travelling bard. In an interesting manner food features an important place in the context of the guiding bard, travelling bard and the patron in Arruppadai poems. In Malaipadukadam the guiding bard speaks about the hospitality of the chieftain Nannan's land as well as his citizens.<br />
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"When you reach the prosperous small village of the forest dwellers (கானவர் குடி), who carry honey, tubers and flesh of small-eyed pigs (சிறுகட் பன்றி) with unwanted parts removed, using tusks of dead elephants as carrying poles, you and your large clan of relatives will receive abundant food." (Malaipadukadam 151 - 157).<br />
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பரூஉக்குறை பொழிந்த நெய்க்கண் வேவையொடு</div>
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குரூஉக்கண் இறடிப் பொம்மல் பெறுகுவிர் (Malaipadukadam 167 – 169)</div>
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"Hospitality in a Village on the Path: </div>
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"Now hear what kind of food you will receive. When you reach a village on the mountain slope and if you tell them that you are the respected musicians of the honored king Nannan, you will receive from them dishes with big pieces of deer meat roasted in ghee along with colorful millet rice. Along with food they will give you sweet liquor aged in bamboo pipes (வேய்ப் பெயல் விளையுள் தேக்கட் தேறல்) and toddy made from rice (நறவு மகிழ்ந்து), which you can drink without limits. And for your hangover to go, in the morning they will serve you scattered seeds of fruits brought down by waterfalls mixed with sour-sweet tamarind fruit and buttermilk in just proportion (வெண்புடைக் கொண்ட துய்த்தலைப் பழனின் இன் புளிக் கலந்து மா மோர் ஆக); and while cooking it she stirs it so that fragrance of the food is felt throughout the hills. She serves it with boiled white bamboo rice (வால் அவிழ் வல்சி அகம்)." (Malaipadukadam 170 - 185)<br />
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அகம் மலி உவகை ஆர்வமொடு அளைஇ</div>
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மகமுறை தடுப்ப மனைதொறும் பெறுகுவிர் (183 – 185)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Hospitality on the Mountain Path:</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">"When you go on the mountain path you will see a dead boar with wounds on his chest, its tusks ruined by digging, killed by a forest guard from high above with arrows. Roast it in the dry bamboo fire which burns without much smoke, remove the hair and eat it. Relax and drink clear water from the beautiful sapphire colored fresh spring. Carry the excess meat in heavy bundles. At night enter a mountain cave and treat it like it is your home". (Malaipadukadam 245 - 255)</span></span><br />
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Hospitality in Nannan's Enemy Land:<br />
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"If you reach the land of Nannan's enemies by night, the noisy place where sounds in the forest are like those from the ocean, with many herds of sheep and goat mixed together (தகர் விரவு துருவை வெள்ளையொடு விரைஇ) like the different colors of rice (பகர் விரவு நெல்லின் பல அரி அன்ன) obtained through bartering, you will be given milk and food that they cooked for themselves". (Malaipadukadam 394 - 420)</div>
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“If you see warriors with sharp arrows and curved bows tell them you are going to see Nannan, they will force feed you with abundant meat and tubers. They are the ones that will protect you, not hurt you. Such is the nature of the forest". (Malaipadukadam 421 - 427) </div>
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Hospitality in Village Huts:<br />
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“At night in the villages with huts you will be served cooked bamboo rice and rice grown on high grounds along with tamarind gravy with avarai beans. In all the villages with huts you will receive huge balls of rice made with tiny perfect rice, butter and meat of white goats. You will also get dishes made with fine millet flour mixed with powdered sugar. Leave in the morning when the birds start chirping". . (Malaipadukadam 434 - 448) </div>
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Hospitality in the Agricultural Land:<br />
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"In the farmlands fishermen's wives mix slices of large necked valai fish with large slices of varal fish and cook. Along with these they serve rice from mountain-like haystacks kept on mounds near the fields. They will also serve liquor made with paddy sprouts".. . (Malaipadukadam 454 - 470) </div>
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Nannan's Generosity:<br />
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"At Nannan's palace you will receive fresh meat and white rice with no limits. You will enjoy this throughout your stay, as much as you want. He will give you perfect clothing, and tall chariots that run like flowing water, large herds of cattle, and horses with tufts decorated with gold jewels. He fills the hands of poets who have nothing with his large hands".. (Malaipadukadam 560 - 570) </div>
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<b>Nannan's Ancestors </b></div>
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This Sangam anthology extols the hero of the poem, Nannan, son of Nannan, the Velir Chieftain of Chenkanmä, his qualities, his wealth, and his generosity. The father of Nannan, the hero of Malaipadukadam, whose name also Nannan, ruled the Ezhil Hills (Ezhilmalai) and Param town of Konkana Nadu (Tulu Nadu i.e., Tulu-speaking region spread over parts of the Karnataka and Kerala states of India) during 2nd century AD. Paranar, famous Sangam era poet, refers to Nannan, who was ill famed as woman killer (<span style="text-align: center;">பெண்கொலை புரிந்த நன்னன்)</span>, in a number of poems. <span style="font-family: inherit;">He was known as Konkanathu Nannan (கொங்கணத்து நன்னன்). </span><span style="font-family: inherit;">The woman was sentenced to death by Nannan for the fault of eating a mango fruit that came to her floating down the stream in which she was bathing. Thus Nannan got bad reputation for killing a woman. </span>Nannan denied to commute the death sentence in spite of being offered eighty one tusker elephants and the gold image of woman as compensation. It is not certain that this event is fact or legend.<br />
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மண்ணிய சென்ற ஒண்ணுதல் அரிவை</div>
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புனல்தரு பசுங்காய் தின்றதன் தப்பற்கு</div>
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ஒன்பதிற் றொன்பது களிற்றொடு அவள்நிறை</div>
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பொன்செய் பாவை கொடுப்பவுங் கொள்ளான்</div>
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பெண்கொலை புரிந்த நன்னன் போல</div>
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வரையா நிரையத்துச் செலீஇயரோ</div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">(</span>குறுந்தொகை, <span style="font-family: inherit;">Kuruntokai 292, 1-5). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Kalladanar in Akananuru poem 199 spoke about Konkanathu Nannan who was defeated and killed by Kalankai-Kanni Narmudi Cheral. Patirrupattu also refer the defeat of Nannan </span><span style="font-family: inherit;">by </span>Kalankai-Kanni Narmudi Cheral who also engaged in <span style="font-family: inherit;">cutting his Vagai tree </span>. He could have lived much earlier to our Nannan, the hero of Malaipadukadam.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Akananuru poems 97 and 152 refer Nannan Venman as the chieftain of Pali (பாழி), Viyalur (வியலூர்), Param (பாரம்), and Pirambu (பிரம்பு) of Konkanam region. </span><br />
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"நறவுமகிழ் இருக்கை நன்னன் வேண்மான்</div>
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வயலை வேலி வியலூ ரன்ன" </div>
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(<span style="text-align: justify;">Akananuru</span>.97)</div>
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"இசைநல் லீகைக் களிறுவீசு வண்மகிழ்</div>
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பாரத்துத் தலைவன் ஆர நன்னன்</div>
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ஏழில் நெடுவரைப் பாழிச் சிலம்பில்" </div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">(Akananuru 152)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Akananuru poem 396 : line 2 -6 refer another Nannan. The friend of Nannan is Ay Eyinan, a chieftain who fought with Minili in Pali battle (பாழி போர்) and got killed (Akananuru 396 : 2-6). Paranar most often refer this Nannan, who could be the father of Nannan, t,he hero of Malaipadukadam. </span><br />
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பொலம்பூண் நன்னன் புன்னாடு கடிந்தென</div>
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யாழிசை மறுகில் பாழி யாங்கண்</div>
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அஞ்சல் என்ற ஆய் எயினன்</div>
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இகலடு கற்பின் மிஞிலியொடு தாக்கித்</div>
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தன்னுயிர் கொடுத் தனன் </div>
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(Akananuru. 396 : 2-6)</div>
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குடாஅது</div>
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இரும்பொன் வாகைப் பெருந்துறைச் செருவில்</div>
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பொலம்பூண் நன்னன் பொருதுகளத் தொழிய</div>
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வலம்படு கொற்றந் தந்த வாய்வாள்</div>
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களங்காய்க் கண்ணி நார்முடிச் சேரல்</div>
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இழந்தநாடு தந்தன்ன வளம்</div>
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(Akananuru. 199 : 18-24)</div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Yet another Nannan Udiyan is referred by Paranar in Akananuru 258 line 1 - 4 and he belonged to ancient Velir clan (Tonmudir Velir) of Pali town (பாழி நகர்). Udiyan was the name of a family tree.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Nannan son of Nannan: As Delineated in Malaipadukadam</b></span></div>
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The poet Perunkausikanar addresses a group of Kuttar and advises them to seek the patronage of king Nannan whose territory includes Naviramalai, a mountain range in Tiruvannamalai district, which features prominently in the poem. Many scholars agree with U.V.Swaminatha Iyer's assignation of Naviramalai, the Sangam era hill range, with the present "Parvatamalai" One of the pieces of evidence which favors this assignation is the name mentioned in the poem, "Kariyundikkadavul," (காரியுண்டிக்கடவுள்) the god who drank poison, referring to god Shiva who resides in this hill. (Malaipadukadam 83). Today the deity, who resides in this hill temple, is called by the Sanskrit name "Kalakanteshvarah" (காலகண்டேஸ்வரா) - the god whose neck is dark blue. There is also a river which flows in this region. In the poem it is called "Ceyaru," the river of Cey, usually understood to be Murugan (The word Cey means "ed" and "son" Today the river goes by the name Shanmuganadhi, the river of Shanmuga or Muruga.<br />
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Malaipadukadam provides a vivid description of Nannan's wives in the first instance and then proceed to introduce Nannan as their husband. "Nannan is the husband to women with curved, rounded arms that resemble bamboo; moist eyes that appear like flowers, and painted, pretty breasts. His chest, decorated with sandal paste, has flower garlands on which bees swarm. His large hands are trained to use bows. He has great strength to ruin enemy lands, a man of clear thinking who avoids evil thoughts. He has the lovely nature to donate to bards who plant seeds of praise."<br />
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புனை தார்ப் பொலிந்த வண்டுபடு மார்பின்</div>
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வனை புனை எழில் முலை வாங்கு அமைத் திரள் தோள்</div>
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மலர் போல் மழைக்கண் மங்கையர் கணவன் (56 - 58)</div>
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முனைபாழ் படுக்கும் துன்அருந் துப்பின்</div>
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இசை நுவல் வித்தின் நசை ஏர் உழவர்க்குப்</div>
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புதுநிறை வந்த புனல் அம் சாயல்</div>
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மதி மாறு ஓரா நன்று உணர் சூழ்ச்சி</div>
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வில் நவில் தடக்கை மே வரும் பெரும் பூண்</div>
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நன்னன் சேய் நன்னற் ... ... .. (Malaipadukadam 56 - 64)</div>
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"Nannan has the ability to bring his enemies under his control, and he gives totally to those who praise his kingship. Like the unfailing skies that drop pure water drops, with a peaceful countenance, he gives without keeping for himself. In his happy court, he is surrounded by the wise who protect and express the views of those with limited abilities who are unable to express themselves in front of others."<br />
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பலர் புறம் கண்டு அவர் அருங்கலம் தரீஇ</div>
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புலவோர்க்குச் சுரக்கும் அவன் ஈகை மாரியும்</div>
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இகழுநர்ப் பிணிக்கும் ஆற்றலும் புகழுநர்க்கு</div>
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அரசு முழுது கொடுப்பினும் அமரா நோக்கமொடு</div>
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தூத்துளி பொழிந்த பொய்யா வானின்</div>
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வீயாது சுரக்கும் அவன் நாள் மகிழ் இருக்கையும்</div>
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நல்லோர் குழீஇய நா நவில் அவையத்து</div>
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வல்லார் ஆயினும் புறம் மறைத்து சென்றோரைச்</div>
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சொல்லிக் காட்டி சோர்வு இன்றி விளக்கி</div>
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நல்லிதின் இயக்கும் அவன் சுற்றத்து ஒழுக்கமும் (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>71 - 80)</div>
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"Know the greatness of the god who resides in <b>Naviram</b> who ate poison, who causes the earth surrounded with water to tremble! Know the faultless, splendid nature of Nannan who is like the sun that rises, chasing wide spread, pitch darkness, to usher in the day!"<br />
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நீர் அகம் பனிக்கும் அஞ்சு வரு கடுந்திறல்</div>
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பேர் இசை நவிரம் மேஎய் உறையும்</div>
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காரி உண்டிக் கடவுளது இயற்கையும்</div>
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பாய் இருள் நீங்கப் பகல் செய்யா எழுதரும்</div>
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ஞாயிறு அன்ன அவன் வசை இல் சிறப்பும் (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>81 - 85)</div>
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"He marched far into distant enemy countries and routed their armies. He performed charitable duties to his noble warrior brigades with spears, for ruining the tall battle elephants of enemies. <br />
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இகந்தன ஆயினும் தெவ்வர் தேஎம்</div>
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நுகம் படக் கடந்து நூழிலாட்டி</div>
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புரைத்தோல் வரைப்பின் வேல் நிழற் புலவோர்க்குக்</div>
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கொடைக்கடன் இறுத்த அவன் தொல்லோர் வரவும் (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>85 - 88)</div>
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"Nannan the honoured king whose victories in battles cannot be handled by enemies."</div>
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நோனாச் செருவின் வலம்படு நோன்தாள்</div>
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மான விறல் வேள் வயிரியம் எனினே (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>163 - 164)</div>
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"Nannan has fought many great battles, who has Lakshmi on his chest."<br />
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தொல்முறை மரபினர் ஆகி பல்மாண்</div>
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செருமிக்குப் புகலும் திரு ஆர் மார்பன் (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>355 - 356)</div>
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"There are tall forts with army leaders who don’t leave the side of Nannan of great fame. There are huge bull elephants resembling rain clouds that ruin enemy kings. "<br />
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உரை செல வெறுத்த அவன் நீங்காச் சுற்றமொடு</div>
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புரை தவ உயரிய மழை மருள் பல்தோல்</div>
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அரசு நிலை தளர்க்கும் அருப்பமும் உடைய... (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam </span>376 - 378)</div>
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"There are many memorial (hero stones) stones on confusing, forked paths planted for warriors of fine, unspoiled fame who fought and died, embarrassed after enemy uproars in the field."</div>
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ஒன்னார்த் தெவ்வர் உலைவு இடத்து ஆர்த்தென</div>
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நல்வழிக் கொடுத்த நாணுடை மறவர்</div>
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செல்லா இல்இசைப் பெயரொடு நட்ட</div>
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கல் ஏசு கவலை எண்ணு மிகப் பலவே (<span style="text-align: center;">Malaipadukadam 386 - 389)</span></div>
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"Nannan’s ancient town has tall houses with wealth and citizens who do not move away."</div>
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நிதியம் துஞ்சும் நிவந்து ஓங்கு வரைப்பின்</div>
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பதி எழல் அறியாப் பழங்குடி ... (Malaipadukadam 478 - 479)</div>
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“Nannan! You are the heir of those with truth and great fame, know that their fame should not stop today, but stay until this world stays, since the great ones who analyzed and knew died! You are a great one that knows the duties of generosity!”</div>
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இன்று இவண் செல்லாது உலகமொடு நிற்ப</div>
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இடைத் தெரிந்து உணரும் பெரியோர் மாய்ந்தென</div>
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கொடைக் கடன் இறுத்த செம்மலோய் என (Malaipadukadam 341 - 343)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; line-height: normal;">Inscription</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The following poetic inscription dated 12th century was found in Shiva temple, Tiruvannamalai. </span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b>நல்லிசைக் கடாம்புனை நன்னன் வெற்பில் </b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b>வெல்புக ழனைத்தும் மேம்படத் தங்கோன் </b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b>வகையும் குரங்கும் விசைய முந்தீட்டிய </b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b>ஆடல்புனை நெடுவேல் ஆட்கொண்ட தேவன் </b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The poetical inscription refer "musically echoing (Naviram) hill of Chieftain Nannan" (நல்லிசைக் கடாம்புனை நன்னன் வெற்பில்).</span><br />
<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Anubambigai Samedha Rishabeswarar temple (அனுபாம்பிகை சமேத ரிஷபேஸ்வரர் ஆலயம்) is located on the banks of river Cheyyar in Kannai (கண்ணை), Chengam town. Poetic inscription dated 12th - 13th century was discovered in 1972 by Mr.M.Chandhiramurthi, Deputy Director (retired), Department of Archeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. This poem was sung on one Kangeyan, a chieftain of this region. Kangeyan has conquered the southern king and the army. He became angry and his eyes turned red. The battle was so fierce and devastating. Where it happened? It happened in the hill (Naviramalai) that was the subject matter in the Pattuppattu anthology Malaipadukadam. The battle ended in a massacre and nothing more than a bloodshed. The blood flowed like river and soaked the hill with the loss of several hundred thousand people..Please note that the word "Malaikadam" (மலைகடாம்) and the phrase Malaipadukadam Pattunda Malvarai (மலைகடாம் பாட்டுண்ட மால்வரை) linking Naviramalai and its chieftain Nannan, son of Nannan, chief of Chenkanmä. Meaning: </span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மூவண்டறை</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தார்மன்னர்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மலைப்படைத்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தென்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மன்னரை</span> </b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">வென்கண்ட</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">திறற்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">காங்கேமன்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">கண்சிவப்ப</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பண்டே</span> </b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மலைகடாம்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பாட்டுண்ட</span> </b></span><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;">மால்வரை</span></span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">செஞ்சொரி</span> </b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">அலைகடாம்</span> </b><b><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பாட்டுண்டது</span>. </b>(Ref.<b> </b><o:p></o:p><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: "arial" , "tahoma" , "helvetica" , "freesans" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.2px; line-height: 18.48px;">Kalvettu Quarterly no 5, p. 13.)</span></div>
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<b><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When the eyes of the
Ganga chief,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><b>The conqueror of the
crowned kings three</b></span></div>
<b><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">And more so the
victorious ruler</span></span></b></div>
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</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></b>
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<b><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Pandya of mountain
ranges like army,</span></span></b></div>
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</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Turned red with
merciless anger</span></div>
</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">The great Navirai
hill, that received</span></div>
</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Praises in days of
yore, in</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #222222;">The song </span><span style="color: red;">Malai kadām
pāṭṭu</span><span style="color: #222222;">,</span></span></div>
</span><span style="background: white; color: #222222; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: justify;">Was reddened with
waves of blood</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The place where the fort of Nannan son Nannan located is now called as "Kottaimedu" (கோட்டைமேடு) (Fort Mound). Another village by name 'Mudalaimadu' (முதலைமடு) also can be linked with the fort. The village Karimalaippadi (கரிமலைப்பாடி) suggests link to training the elephants by mahouts. Urn burials are noticed in Chengam town.</span></span><br />
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<b>Archaeological Excavations</b></div>
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Andipatti is located in Chenagam taluk, Tiruvannamalai district and the village is situated 15 km away from Chengam town. The State Department of Archeology, Chennai carried out systematic excavation in the year 2004 - 2005. At two habitation mounds locally known as Nattamedu (நத்தமேடு) and Sambalkadu (செம்பைக்காடு), the archaeologists laid twelve trenches and unearthed a terracotta bull image, shell bangles, "Mother Goddess" figurines, spindle whorls, pottery with graffiti marks of Megalithic and Historic periods. The potteries comprise black and red-ware sherds as well as coarse red-ware sherds. The Department of Archeology also discovered three potsherds with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. One of the potsherds deciphered the Tamil Brahmi inscription as "kan narpo" and the department epigraphists ascertained the date between 4th - 5th century AD. Another two Tamil Brahmi inscriptions inscribed on pot lids read "... aa th tha... " and "...ku ma... " and the date could be assigned to an earlier period.<br />
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Based on the unearthed antiquities, it is ensured that Andipatti site has been continuously occupied since 1st century BC through 12th century AD. Terracotta figurines of Mother Godess has been found in three locations in Tamil Nadu including Adichanallur near Tirunelveli, Melaperumballam near Poompuhar and Poluvaampatti near Coimbatore.. At Andipatti the team also unearthed two figurines mostly human parts i.e., hand and leg portion and mother goddess and the two figurines discovered by Archaeologists at Andipatti belong to 8th to 12th century AD. About 143 lead coins of the 2nd century A.D. were unearthed during an excavation in 1968. According to Iravatham Mahadevean, the coins could have minted by chieftains who ruled this land between 2nd and 3rd century AD. The coins bear the graffiti of two mountain ranges and goad and inscriptions of Sangam era names like "Thinnan" and "Sendhan." They have used the unique Sangam era character "." (period) punctuation on the coin. The goad mark indicates the presence of elephants in abundance and mahouts engaged in training them. Army camps also existed to protect the elephants.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Andipatti 1.jpg (350×282)" src="http://www.tnarch.gov.in/images/Andipatti%201.jpg" height="322" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A bull, made of terracotta, found at Andipatti PC: State Arch Dept</td></tr>
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In a garden of an old house in a Chengam intersection they have discovered the burial urn, human skulls, teeth, red and black potsherds When dug in Nattamedu here, they have observed dilapidated structures and retrieved the gold coins, icons of Buddhist and Jain monks. The State Department of Archeology has discovered over 45 hero stones in the Chengam region and Malaipadukadam also mentions about Memorial stones<br />
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<b>Reference</b></div>
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<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">A slice of life in an ancient period. Ramakrishnan T. The Hindu. June 23, 2005 (http://www.thehindu.com/2005/06/23/stories/2005062303670400.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">Ancient Tamil Literature (from the Introduction to Landscape and Poetry, 1966 Father Xavier S. Thaninayagam). Tamilnation.org (http://tamilnation.co/literature/ancientliterature.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">Andipatti. Department of Archaeology. (http://www.tnarch.gov.in/excavation/andipatti.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">Essays on Indian Society. Raj Kumar. New Delhi, Discovery, 2003. History and Culture Series (New Delhi, India). p. 83.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">History of the Tamils : from the earliest times to 600 AD. P T Srinivasa Iyengar New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1983. p. 546. (https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=8120601459)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">Kongu Vellala Gounder (wiki). ஜூலை 10, 2011 (http://konguvellalagounderwiki.blogspot.in/2011/07/kongu-vellala-gounderwiki-full.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">More on Tamil Music: Patthupattu (http://www.carnatica.net/tamil1.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">Mother Goddess figurines found in Tamil Nadu. T.S. Subramanian. The Hindu May 22, 2005. (http://www.thehindu.com/2005/05/22/stories/2005052200121100.htm)</span></li>
<li>Parvathamalai Mountain. Wikimapia (http://wikimapia.org/1073892/Parvathamalai-Mountain)</li>
<li>Pathuppāttu – Malaipadukadām. Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi. (https://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/pathuppattu-malaipadukadam/)</li>
<li>Pattupattu, Tamil Literature. IndiaNetzone. (http://www.indianetzone.com/58/pattupattu.htm)</li>
<li>Poetics of Place in Early Tamil Literature. Muthukumar, N. Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of California, Berkeley, USA (http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/etd/ucb/text/Muthukumar_berkeley_0028E_11894.pdf)</li>
<li>Poets in Sangam Age. Indianetzone. (http://www.indianetzone.com/58/poets_sangam_age.htm)</li>
<li><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 16.8667px;">South Indian Shrines Illustrated. PV.Jagadisa Iyer. Asian Education Services. 1982. Pp.11</span></li>
<li>Tamil Eighteen Hundred years ago. V.Kanagasabhai. Asian Educational Services. 1904. Pp. 203</li>
<li>ஆற்றுப்படை. வேர்களைத்தேடி May 19, 2009. (http://www.gunathamizh.com/2009/05/blog-post_19.html)</li>
<li><span style="font-family: inherit;"><a href="https://learnsangamtamil.com/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D/" target="_blank">பத்துப்பாட்டு – மலைபடுகடாம்</a>. Learning Sangam Tamil.</span> </li>
<li><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://vengimalai.blogspot.in/2014/05/blog-post_28.html" target="_blank">சங்கம் வளர்த்த செங்கம் காரியுண்டி, சேயாறு, நவிரமலை மலைக்க வைக்கும் மலைபடு கடாம்</a>. உண்மையின்பேரொளி மே 28, 2014</span></li>
<li>மலைப்படுகடாம். ஒரு சித்திரம். வளவ துரையன். திண்ணை. April 15, 2004 ((http://old.thinnai.com/?p=60404157))</li>
<li><span style="color: black;"><a href="http://muelangovan.blogspot.in/2008/01/blog-post.html" target="_blank">மலைபடுகடாம் நூலின் பாட்டுடைத் தலைவன் நன்னனின் வரலாறு</a>. மு.இளங்கோவன். 10 ஜனவரி, 2008 </span></li>
</ol>
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<b>YouTube</b></div>
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<b>Mann Pesum Sarithiram Episode 285. Vasanth TV</b></div>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1TIRUVANNAMALAI Dist,Kdaladi Forest, Parvathiamalai R.F., Tamil Nadu 606901, India12.4375735 78.97280939999996-17.810476 37.664215399999961 42.685623 120.28140339999996tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-60682249497540539822017-02-02T07:45:00.001-08:002017-02-05T05:32:42.270-08:00Muziris (Muciri), A Sangam Era Port in Kerala: History Through the Ages<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Muziris (Malayalam: മുച്ചിരി) or Muciri (Tamil, முசிறி) <span style="text-align: left;">also called various names from ancient times,</span> Mahodayapuram (Malayalam: മാക്കോതയാപുരം) (Tamil: மகோதயபுரம்), Makotai (Malayalam: മകോതൈ) (Tamil: மகோதை), Muyirikode (Malayalam: മുയിർക്കോട്) (Tamil: முயிர்க்கோடு), was an ancient seaport and urban center on the West Coast. The Sea submerged the flourishing port town Muziris at the mouth of the river Periyar (Malayalam: പെരിയാര്) (Tamil: பேரியாறு), overlooking the Arabian sea, and at present <span style="text-align: left;">the Muziris Heritage Site (MHS) </span>straddles across the borders of Ernakulam (North Paravur municipality) and Thrissur districts (Kodungallur municipality) of central Kerala. The historic towns of Kodungallur (Malayalam കൊടുങ്ങല്ലൂര്) (Tamil: கொடுங்களூர்), Pattanam (Malayalam: പട്ടണം) (Tamil: பட்டணம்) and Paravur (Malayalam: പറവൂർ) (Tamil: பரவூர்), forming part of MHS, are located at the hinterland, the Periyar Basin. Cherai Beach, in the MHS project area, is a major tourist destination.<br />
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Pattanam (Malayalam: പട്ടണം), is a small village situated in the Periyar river delta in Paravur taluk, Eranakulam district, Kerala state, India PIN 683 522. It is located 1 km from Vadakkekara, 5 km from north of Paravur, 9 km south of Kodungallur (Cranganore), 25 km north of Kochi (Cochin), 28 km towards north from district head quarters Kakkanad. and 236 km from State capital Thiruvananthapuram. <span style="text-align: left;">Pattanam lies on the geographical coordinates of 10.15654°N and 76.208982°E and the elevation / altitude is 12 m above sea level. </span> Pattanam is currently identified by Prof. P.J. Cherian, Director of the Pattanam excavations as Muziris. Some scholars contradict this view. Ancient Tamil Sangam literature assigns it as Muciri.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Kodungallur (Malayalam കൊടുങ്ങല്ലൂര്) (anglicised name: Cranganore), a municipal town, is located in the south-west border of Thrissur district, Kerala, India PIN 680664. Kodungallur lies on the geographical coordinates of 10.233761°N and 76.194634°E and the elevation / altitude is 9 m above sea level. According to A Sreedhara Menon, the author of the title 'A Survey of Kerala History,' Kodungallur is the ancient Muziris. but no evidence of maritime or mercantile activity could be found there. About 5000 years ago Kodungallur and Paravur were part of the sea and the radiocarbon dating of peat samples prove this hypothesis. </span>The temple at Kodungallur is conceived to have been built by Chera king Senguttuvan (சேரன் செங்குட்டுவன்), for Kannagi (கண்ணகி), heroine of Silappadikaram (சிலப்பதிகாரம்). It is believed that Kannagi gained her ascension in Kodungallur and therefore she has been enshrined here.<br />
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<b style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Early Cheras (Samgam Period) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">270 BC - 710 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">AD</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Chera dynasty (சேர வம்சம்), an ancient Dravidian dynasty of Tamil descent, that ruled parts of the present-day states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The earliest stone inscription with a reference on "Kerala" is the <i>"Edicts of Ashoka"</i> (BC 274-237). Kerala is mentioned as <i>"Keralaputho"</i> (Malayalam: കേരളപുതോ) (Tamil: கேரளபுதோ) (Kerala Puthra </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">meaning</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Cheraman</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">) in the second and thirteenth Ashoka Sthambhas. Few Tamil Brahmi inscriptions mention some Sangam Era kings: Neduncheliyan in Mangulam inscription, Athiyaman in Jambai inscription, and Irumporai dynasty in Pugalur inscription. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The inscription discovered in Aranattarmalai (Tamil: ஆறுநாட்டாமலை, புகலூர்), near Pugalur in Karur district, Tamil Nadu refers to three generations of Chera rulers Ko Adan Cel Irrumporai (Tamil: கோ ஆதன் <span style="font-family: latha, tscu_paranar, arial; text-align: center;">செல்</span> இரும்பொறை), his son Perumkadunkon (Tamil: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பெருங்கடுங்கோன்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), and his son Ilamkadungo (Tamil: </span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">இளங்கடுங்கோ):</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: latha, tscu_paranar, arial;">‘மூதா அமண்ணன் யாற்றூர் செங்காயபன் உறைய்ய </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: latha, tscu_paranar, arial;">கோ ஆதன் செல்லிரும்பொறை மகன் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: latha, tscu_paranar, arial;">கடுங்கோ இளங்கோ ஆக அறுத்த கல்’</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: latha, tscu_paranar, arial;">(Aranattarmalai Inscription, near Pugalur in Karur district)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">செல்வக்கடுங்கோ வாழியாதன் (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Patirruppattu </span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">7th set of Ten Poems </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">பதிற்றுப்பத்து</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;"> 7ஆம் பத்து),</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை </span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Patirruppattu 8</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">th set of Ten Poems </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">பதிற்றுப்பத்து</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;"> 8ஆம் பத்து)</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">இளஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை </span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Patirruppattu 9</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;">th set of Ten Poems </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">பதிற்றுப்பத்து</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "arial"; text-align: start;"> 9ஆம் பத்து)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">It also refers to ‘Pon Vaanigan,’ gold merchant from Karur (Tamil Nadu). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">The date assignable to the inscription (based on its paleography) to the first-second century A.D.</span></div>
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Cheras are referred to as Cherala (சேரல) and Cheraman (சேரமான்) in Sangam literature and it vaguely describes a long line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. However their dating is clearly absent and genealogy is lacking. The term "Kerala" never occurred in Sangam works.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Patirruppattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து), also known as Pathirruppaththu (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">the ten sets of ten poems</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">), </span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">is one of the works of the Eight Anthologies or </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">books of the Ettuttokai (எட்டுத்தொகை).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> The anthology </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">consists of one hundred verses. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The first and the last ten poems have been lost beyond recovery.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> The poems</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> are composed by various Tamil Sangam poets. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The poems glorify the affluence of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ten kings of the</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Chera dynasty from </span>Uthiyan Cheralathan (உதியன் சேரலாதன்) a.k.a "Perum Chorru Udiyan" (பெருஞ்சோற்று உதியன்) to Perunceral Irumporai (பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை).</div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Vanchi </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">(வஞ்சி)</span></b></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><br /></span></b></span>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Vanchi </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">(Tamil: வஞ்சி) also known as Vanchi Muthur (வஞ்சி மூதூர்)</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"> was the capital of Chera dynasty (சேரர் வம்சம்). Archaeological evidence attest </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">that Vanchi</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"> lies in the outskirts of present day Kodungallur and some </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">historians contradict this view. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left;">Few </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">historians also recognize Vanchi as </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left;">Karur </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left;">(கரூர்)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> located on the banks of Amaravathi river, the ancient capital city of the Cheras, in present-day Karur district, Tamil Nadu state.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">குடபுலங் காவலர் மருமா னொன்னார்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வடபுல விமயத்து வாங்குவிற் பொறித்த</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">எழுவுறழ் திணிதோ ளியறேர்க் குட்டுவண்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வருபுனல்வாயில் வஞ்சியும் வறிதே யதாஅன்று . . </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(</span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sirupanarruppatai </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">சிறுபணாற்றுப்படை 47 - 50)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sirupanarruppatai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை), a Sangam anthology, speaks about Cheran Kuttuvan's (சேரன் குட்டுவன்) expedition to Himalayas and imprinting the Chera's royal emblem i.e., bow and arrow on the face of the Himalaya. It also describes about the Chera capital Vanchi. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;">.</span><span style="color: #252525;"><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">'துஞ்சா முழவின் மூதூர் வாயில் '</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">(Pathirruppaththu</span><span style="color: #252525; font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 22.4px;"> பதிற்றுப்பத்து 236)</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #252525; font-family: inherit;"><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">(Uniterrupted beat of the drum is heard in the entrance of the town)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">In Silappadikaram (சிலப்பதிகாரம்), the Tamil epic composed by Ilango Adigal (இளங்கோ அடிகள்) in the 2nd century AD, a part is devoted on Vanchi town, the capital of Cheras and named as Vanchikandam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">வஞ்சிக்காண்டம்), Vanchi Part or third part of the book.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">‘ </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வஞ்சி மூதூர் மணிமண் டபத்திடை' </span>(Amidst the temple mandapam of Vanchi Muthur town) </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Silappadikaram Varantharu Kadhai 173-174)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மண்ணகம் நிழல் செய, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மற வாள் ஏந்திய, </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நிலம் தரு திருவின் நெடியோன்-தனாது </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">வலம் படு சிறப்பின் வஞ்சி மூதூர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(Silappadikaram Nadukar Kadhai நடுகற்காதை 1 - 4)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">முறைமையின் இந்த மூதூர் அகத்தே</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">அவ்வவர் சமயத்தறிபொருள் கேட்டு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மெய்வகை இன்மை நினக்கே விளங்கிய</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பின்னர்ப் பெரியோன் பிடக நெறி கடவாய்</span></div>
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(Manimekalai Vanchi Manakar Pukka Kadhai (வஞ்சிமா நகர் புக்க காதை) 63 - 65)</div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 10.0pt;">·<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">Vanchi (</span><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tinospora Cardifolia) </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">(Tamil: சீந்தில் கொடி) is a kind plant found in India. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-indent: 0px;">Kapilar (கபிலர்), the author of Kurinjippattu (குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு), a sangam anthology, had mentioned 99 flowers found in the Kurunji region (Mountainous region). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">Vanchi flower is mentioned as the 79th flower in this list. The Tamil kings and chieftains wore different flowers in the battlefield to denote different heroic activities. While invading an enemy's territory the soldiers wore Vanchi' flowers and enter in to the territory for cattle raids.. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">P Periyapuranam </span><span style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;"></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">(பெரிய புராணம்) </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">also known as Tirutontarpuranam, is the 13th century great purana or Tamil epic , depicts the legendary lives of 63 Saivite saints (Nayanmars). Kalarrarivar Nayanar Puranam (</span><span style="font-family: inherit; text-indent: 0px;"><span lang="TA" style="text-indent: -24px;">கழறிற்றறிவார்</span><span lang="TA" style="text-indent: -24px;"> </span><span lang="TA" style="text-indent: -24px;">நாயனார்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">), (Puranam 47) mentions Vanchi as Tiruvanchaikkalam (</span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: -18pt;">திருவஞ்சைக்களம்) and Kodungallur (</span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: -18pt;">கொடுங்களூர்</span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-indent: -18pt;">). The epic also describes about the fort walls and gardens.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">Muziris or Muciri (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">முசிறி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">)</span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">Indian west coast had numerous ports when compared with Indian east coast. The reason for concentration of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">ports in west coast</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">could be that they were easily approached by the traders of Roman empire. Muciri </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">(</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">முசிறி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">), an ancient port town, is popular among the port towns in the west coast (Chera country). Greeks or Yavanas called this port as Muziris. Muziris means cleft lip and the coastline resembles as the cleft lip from aerial view. Valmiki Ramayana mentions this port as 'Murasi (முரசி).' Like the internationally renowned Kaveripoompattinam in the east coast, Muciri was also far-famed for overseas trade in the west coast. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">மலைத் தாரமும் கடல் தாரமும்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">தலைப் பெய்து, வருநர்க்கு ஈயும்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">புனலங் கள்ளின் பொலந்தார்க் குட்டுவன்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">முழங்கு கடல் முழவின் முசிறி யன்ன,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">Purananuru புறநானுறு 343, 7-10</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">Poet Paranar describes natural wealth of Muciri in Purananuru Poem </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">343, 7-10: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">"With its streets, its houses, its covered fishing boats, where they sell fish, where they pile up rice-with the shifting and mingling crowd of a boisterous river-bank were the sacks of pepper are heaped up-with its gold deliveries, carried by the ocean-going ships and brought to the river bank by local boats, the city of the gold-collared Kuttuvan (Chera chief), the city that bestows wealth to its visitors indiscriminately, and the merchants of the mountains, and the merchants of the sea, the city where liquor abounds, yes, this Muciri, were the rumbling ocean roars, is give to me like a marvel, a treasure. ."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Chera country (Kerala) often referred to as the "Spice Garden of India" or the land of spices and this spicy commodity have an effect upon socio - geopolitics of the world. Pepper also pushed the port town onto the center-stage. The Indo - Roman trade commence in first century BC following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt. The Romans sailed to India with 'amphorae of olive oil and wines, chests of gold and silver and their famed pottery.' They established trading settlements in Chera land. In the first century BC Muziris was one of India’s most important trading ports, whose exports – especially black pepper – kept even mighty Rome in debt. </span></div>
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மீன் நொடுத்து நெல் குவைஇ</div>
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மிசை யம்பியின் மனைமறுக் குந்து!</div>
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மனைக் கவைஇய கறிமூ டையால்.</div>
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கலிச் சும்மைய கரைகலக் குறுந்து</div>
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கலந் தந்த பொற் பரிசம்</div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">Purananuru புறநானுறு 343, 1-5 </span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">During Sangam era most trade was by barter. Paddy was the most popular commodity and the well accepted medium of exchange. They also exchanged purified salt. honey and roots against fish liver oil and arrack. According to Purananuru, the boat sail on the river with loads of fish and would return with paddy exchanged against fish. It seems that Muziris was a shallow port and hence the ships anchored far off from the shore. The </span><span style="text-align: left;"> boats with loads of pepper bags would sail towards the anchored ships to exchange gold jewels brought through ships by overseas traders.</span></div>
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‘சுள்ளியம் பேர்யாற்று வெண்ணுரை கலங்க</div>
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யவனர் தந்த வினைமாண் நன்கலம் </div>
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பொன்னொடு வந்து கறியொடு பெயரும் </div>
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வளங்கெழு முசிறி</div>
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(Akananuru அகநானூறு, 149:9-11)<span style="text-align: justify;"> </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 15px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Here lies the thriving town of Muciri, where “the beautiful vessels, the masterpieces of the Yavanas (Greeks), stir white foam on the Periyar, river of Kerala, arriving with gold and departing with pepper.” (Akananuru 149:9-11).</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">The Pandyan port city of Korkai was the center of the pearl trade. The coastal town Muciri was also popular for its pearls. The pearl fishery was popular occupation in Periyar river estuary. Chanakya (</span></span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">Kautilya) refers that Chaurneyam (Tamil: சூர்னியம்) (a kind of pearl specially found in Periyar or Churni river (Tamil: சூர்ணியாறு) was brought to North India in the 4th cent. BC. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">Periyar river was known as `Churni river</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">' in Sangham poetry. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">According Pathirruparru, the pearls of Muciri were sold in a port known as Bandhar (</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">பந்தர்</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman";">) and rare gold jewels were sold in another port called Kodumanam (</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">கொடுமணம்</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: left;">). Bandhar is an Arabic term which means market place. The term stands as evidence for Arab trade links in Muciri.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">இன்னிசைப் புணரி இரங்கும் பௌவத்து</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">நன்கல வெறுக்கை துஞ்சும் பந்தர்க்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">கமழுந தாழைக் கானலம் பெருந்துறை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">(Pathirruppaththu </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பதிற்றுப்பத்து 6th set of 10, 5th Poem)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ships anchored at the port Bandhar</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">‘கொடுமணம் பட்ட வினைமான் அருங்கலம்</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பந்தர்ப் பயந்த பலர்புகழ் முத்தம்’</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">(Pathirruppaththu </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">பதிற்றுப்பத்து </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">8th set of 10, 4th Poem Line 5-6)</span><br />
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At Bandhar ornate ships brought far-famed pearls from Kodumanam<br />
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<b>Foreign Records on Muziris</b><br />
<i><br /></i><i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i><br />
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<i>Hippalus</i>, a Yavana (Greek) navigator and overseas trader, is believed to be the captain of the Greek explorer <i>Eudoxus of Cyzicus' ship</i>. The <i>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</i> (<i>Periplus Maris Erythraei</i>) also known as the <i>Periplus of the Red Sea</i>, is an unknown <i>Greek periplus</i> (merchant - mariner's handbook) devoted to new fields of geographical discovery and commercial achievement. The text describes about the navigation from Egyptian and Roman ports along the Red sea coast and others along Northeast Africa and the Sindh and South western India. The date assignable to Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is mid first century AD. This text gives credit to Hippalus for discovering the direct route from the Red Sea to India over the Indian Ocean. Hippalus seems to have plotted the scheme of the sea and arrived the correct the location of the trade ports along the west coast. In short Hippalus is credited for discovering the monsoon wind which is also named as Hippalus (the south-west monsoon wind).. The use of Hippalus' direct route helped the Greco-Roman ships in frequenting to Muziris port from the 1st century BC on wards. Muziris served as the pre-historic gateway to India. The ships sailed with loads of coral, copper, tin, lead and mirror and returned with Indian spices, silk, cotton, pearls, glass and stone beads. Pepper was preferred as the favorite commodity in Rome and hence known as <i>'Yavanapriya'</i> (Tamil: யவனப் பிரியா).</div>
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Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Kerala as <i>"Cerobothra"</i> and also provides an account on this ancient port: ”Muziris "abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea 500 stadia, and up the river from the shore 20 stadia"... "There is exported pepper, which is produced in only one region near these markets, a district called <i>Cottonara</i>."<br />
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The handbook refer "Musiri, a city at the height of prosperity, was two miles distance from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the Government of the Kingdom under the sway of <i>Kaprobothras</i>." It also bring out how this coastal town became the key trade port for the Chera land. The merchant ships frequented from Roman empire as well as northern India and the settlement of the overseas traders in Muziris showed keen interest in promoting foreign trade. The warehouses stacked black pepper brought from Chera hinterland and awaited for the export opportunities through Roman traders. The shallow waters of Muziris port disallowed foreign vessels with deep hull from sailing upstream to the port. The overseas freighters were constrained to stay at the border of the lagoon. Therefore their consignments were shifted upstream on light boats.<br />
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<i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History</i><br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>Pliny the Elder</i> (<i>Gaius Plinius Secundus</i>), a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, published </span><i>Naturalis Historia</i> (<i>Natural History</i>),<span style="font-family: inherit;"> a comprehensive work in Latin, It is encyclopedic in scope and considered as the unique voluminous treatise survived from the Roman empire to the modern world It intents to disseminate all ancient knowledge to the modern world. According to Pliny's Natural History, Muziris is described as <i>“the first emporium of India”</i>, <i>“not to be sought because of pirates nearby</i>." and </span><i>"the station for ships is at a distance from the shore and cargoes have to be landed and shipped by means of little boats. There reigned there, when I wrote this, Coelobothros"</i>. Pliny calls Kerala as "Caelobothras."<br />
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<i><span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;">Papyrus Vindobonensis or </span><span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;">Muziris papyrus </span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;"><i>Papyrus Vindobonensis G 40822</i>, widely known as the <i>“Muziris papyrus,”</i> is the most significant pieces of evidence concerned with Indo-Roman trade. This second century AD Greek papyrus contract document involves an Alexandrian trader, importer and financier. The papyrus document records particulars about the cargo consignment worth around nine million sesterces was imported from Muziris, on board a Roman merchant vessel named as Hermapollan. This document enabled the economists and lawyers to analyse international trade and overseas trade laws in depth.</span><span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;"> </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="326" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/TabulaPeutingerianaMuziris.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left;">Muziris, as shown in the 4th century </span><i style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12.3704px; line-height: 17.3186px; text-align: left;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_Peutingeriana" style="background: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tabula Peutingeriana">Tabula Peutingeriana</a></i></td></tr>
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i style="line-height: 22.4px;">Peutinger Map (Tabula Peutingeriana)</i></span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>Peutinger Map (Tabula Peutingeriana)</i> is an odd sized medieval copy of an ancient road map. The map dates back to second century AD. In this map Muziris and Tondi ports are well indicated. The map also shows a large lake behind Muziris. It also marks the presence of <i>Temple Augustus (Templ(um) Augusti)</i>.</span></span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Muziris Devasted by Cataclysmic Event </b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">It is assumed that Muciri and its famous port were devastated by cataclysmic event (கடல் கோள்) in 1341 </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and consequently lost its commercial importance thereafter.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">. The apocalyptic calamities may be due to Tsunami, sea incursions, erosion and flood in Periyar river. As a result the geography of the region was altered. According to Dick Whittakker and Rajan Gurukkal, who made a study and published a document titled <i>"In Search of Muziris,"</i> the </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">cataclysmic event geographically altered the access to Periyar river. It not only formed Vembanad back water system but also opened up the Kochi (Cochin) harbour. The regional geological survey of the region reveals that before 200 - 300 years the shoreline was laid about 3 km east to the present coast. It could have moved even further east say about 6.5 km before 2000 years. A</span><span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-indent: 16px;">t present Muciri region is identified and earmarked as </span><span style="text-align: left;"><i>Muziris Heritage Site (MHS)</i> and </span>historic towns of Kodungallur, Pattanam and North Paravur forming part of MHS.</div>
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<b>Muziris Archaeological Excavations</b><br />
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1945: Series of excavations undertaken at Kodungallur since from 1945. The teams could recover only antiquities of the 13th century or afterwards.<br />
1969 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out an excavation in 1969 at <i>Ceraman Parambu</i>, 2 km north of Kodungallur. Only antiquities of the 13th and 16th century were recovered.<br />
1983: A huge hoard of Roman coins was discovered at a site around six miles from Pattanam.<br />
2007 - 2014: A series of pioneering excavations carried out by Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR, an autonomous institution) at Pattanam since from 2007<br />
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman'; text-align: left;">Pattanam Excavations 2007 - 2015</b><br />
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For the first time multi-disciplinary archaeological excavation was carried out by KCHR (with the approval of ASI) from 18th February to 8th April 2007 (first phase) in the historic village Pattanam. The site at Pattanam covers approximately 1.5 sq. km and the core area measures about 600 x 400 m. KCHR team carried out nine excavations (2007 - 2015) and unearthed130,865 artefacts, circa 5,16,676 diagnostic potsherds, 141, 348 non-Indian pottery sherds and circa 4.5 million local body sherds. It includes Mediterranean amphora, terra sigillata sherds, Roman glass fragments and gaming counters (dated 100 BC - 400 AD); turquoise glazed pottery, torpedo jar fragments and frankincense crumbs of West Asian, South Arabian Mesopotamian origin (dated 300 BC - 1000 AD); Chinese blue on white porcelain sherds (dated 1600 AD - 1900 AD); Local black and red ware sherds, Indian rouletted ware, gemstones, glass beads, semi precious stone beads / inlays / intaglio, cameo–blanks, coins, spices, pottery terracotta objects and human bones. They have also identified iron, copper, gold and lead objects as well as crucible slag, furnace installations, lapidary remains of semi-precious stones and spindle whorls suggesting industrial character of the settlement. Two important objects i.e., the semi precious stone carved with the figure of a pouncing lion and the micro metal object with intricate designs, were retrieved during ongoing excavations. The haul also includes 112 early coins including 3 lead coins of the Chera kingdom.<br />
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<span style="line-height: 20px;">The team is surprised with the discovery of burnt bricks and roof-tiles. The remains of ancient brick wall, a brick platform, a ring well, storage jars, toilet features, lamps, stylus and scripts on pottery suggests about the existence of a prominent urban settlement and the date assigned between 100 BC and 400 AD. They have taken note of a wharf with bollards and a six meter long wooden canoe lying parallel to the wharf, about 2.5 meter below ground level. </span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 20px;">The <i>Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar</i> carried out carbon dating and concluded that Pattanam habitation goes back to the first millennium BC. It is believed that this place was under continuous occupation from second century BC to tenth century AD. The Indo - Roman trade at Pattanam was in its peak since from first century BC.</span><br />
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According to Prof. PJ, Cherian, Director of the Pattanam excavations, “The discovery, in the Kerala context, has a great significance because of the dearth of evidence so far of the pre-Brahminical past of Kerala, especially in relation to the socio-cultural and religious life of the people. The KCHR team has unearthed (at a two meter depth) the Tamil Brahmi script on a pot rim, reading <b><i>"a ma na"</i></b> (Amana meaning a Jaina). This ancient Tamil Brahmi script with two symbols deciphered as Megalithic graffiti serves as the evident for the prevalence of Jainism <span style="text-align: justify;">on the Malabar coast at least from 2nd century AD. </span><br />
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Another pot-sherd with the Tamil-Brahmi letters reading <b><i>“ur pa ve o”</i></b> was deciphered by Dr. V. Selvakumar (Tamil University, Thanjavur) and Dr. K.P. Shajan (Geo-archaeologist, KCHR), the Co – Directors. Yet another another Tamil-Brahmi script with the letters <b><i>“ca ta [n]”</i></b> was also recovered. The exact spot of Pattanam is not clearly identified. Dr.K.P.Shajan. Shajan maintains that Periyar river had changed its course over the centuries and believes that the ancient port might have been at Pattanam. Discovery of broken pottery and ancient fired bricks during excavation suggests him the changes in the course of the river over the centuries. However historians like R Nagaswamy, KN Panikkar and MGS Narayanan have disagreed with the identification of Pattanam as Muziris and called for further research. KCHR chief maintains, "whether Pattanam was Muziris is not of immediate concern to us,"<br />
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According to Dr. Wendy Morrison of the Oxford University, the trade links of Southern India with Rome in the early Iron Age is reminiscent of the Roman invasion of England around the same period, She linked with the excavations by Oxford research team at <i>Dorchester Village. England</i> have come out with interesting finds on the country’s cultural and trade links with Rome. Pattanam excavations and the unearthed archaeological treasures have revolutionized the cultural history of Kerala<br />
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The Kerala State government sensed the tourism potential of the Pattanam discovery and established the Muziris Heritage Project (MHP) and the budget allocated for the first phase of the project was <span style="background-color: white; line-height: 20px; text-align: start;">Rs.1,400 million. </span><span style="line-height: 20px;">MHP envisages preservation of monuments and intends to restore old bazaars, roads, bridges, canals etc., spread across two municipal towns and 6 panchayats. The Government also sent proposal to UNESCO for declaring Muziris a world heritage site.</span><br />
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<b style="text-align: left;">Reference</b><br />
<ol>
<li>Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade. Mathew KS. Rouledge. 25 Nove 2015. 472p.</li>
<li>Introducing the Muziris Papyrus. Maddy. Historic Alleys (http://historicalleys.blogspot.in/2010/06/introducing-muziris-papyrus.html)</li>
<li>Ivory from Muziris* Federico De Romanis (http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/8/)</li>
<li>Lost cities #3 – Muziris: did black pepper cause the demise of India's ancient port? The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/10/lost-cities-3-muziris-india-kerala-ancient-port-black-pepper)</li>
<li>More evidence unearthed at ancient port of Muziris by A. Srivathsan. The Hindu. November 15, 2016</li>
<li>Muziris Wikipedia</li>
<li>Muziris, at last? Krishnakumar R. Frontline. <span style="background-color: white; text-align: -webkit-center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Volume 27, Issue 08, April 10-23, 2010</span></span></li>
<li>Pattanam: A Rupture in the Cultural History of Kerala. Ajaysekhar Margins. May 7th, 2011. (http://ajaysekher.net/2011/05/07/pattanam-muziris-excavations-pasts-kerala/)</li>
<li>‘Pattanam and Dorchester shared similar links with Rome’ The Hindu April 21, 2010 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/pattanam-and-dorchester-shared-similar-links-with-rome/article5933114.ece)</li>
<li>Pattanam Archaeological Research. Kerala Council of Historical research.(http://kchr.ac.in/articles/87/Pattanam-Archaeological-Research.html)</li>
<li>Pattanam One Five Nine (http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Ernakulam/Paravur/Pattanam)</li>
<li>Pattanam Wikipedia</li>
<li>Periplus of the Erythraean Sea - Wikipedia</li>
<li>Political History of Modern Kerala. A. Sreedhara Menon. D C Books. 1987.p. 22.</li>
<li>Sangam Port: Muchiri in Kerala. Devapriya. Wordpress. March 19, 2010.</li>
<li>Tamil-Brahmi script found at Pattanam in Kerala by TS.Subramaniyan. The Hindu March 14, 2011 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Tamil-Brahmi-script-found-at-Pattanam-in-Kerala/article14947188.ece)</li>
<li>The Ancient Roman Connections with Tamil Nadu. (https://docs.google.com/document/d/1EnoLAy1bKEITHsrWkSBMsJZEQL9nx32drsNUZ_7r5Bk/edit)</li>
<li>The Chera Coins (Tamil Coins - A Study; R. Nagaswamy). Tamil Arts Academy (http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.xml)</li>
<li>What is the history of the Indian city of Muziris? Yahoo Answers. (https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120210135734AA3geeZ)</li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">பண்டைத் தமிழகம் வணிகம் - நகரங்கள் மற்றும் பண்பாடு மயிலை சீனி. வேங்கடசாமி ஆய்வுக் களஞ்சியம் - 4 </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">நியூ செஞ்சுரி புக் ஹவுஸ் பிரவேட் லிமிடெட்</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;">.</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">பக்கம் 97 - 100 (http://www.tamilvu.org/slet/ln00101/ln00101pag.jsp?bookid</span></li>
<li>வஞ்சி, முசிறி இருப்பிடம். தமிழ்த்துளி October 13, 2014 (http://vaiyan.blogspot.in/2014/10/blog-post.html)</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-65879210227960185302017-01-13T09:13:00.000-08:002017-01-13T09:13:03.082-08:00Kaveripoompattinam (Poompuhar): History Through the Ages <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Poompuhar-Kannagi-Museum-Building.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="298" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Poompuhar-Kannagi-Museum-Building.jpg" style="cursor: move;" width="400" /></a></div>
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Poompuhar Art Gallery - Wikipedia</div>
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Kaveripoompattinam (காவிரிப்பூம்பட்டிணம்), also called various names from ancient times, <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Champathy (சம்பாதி) (as cited in Manimekalai (மணிமேகலை), Cholapattanam (சோழபட்டணம்), </span>Kaveripattinam (காவேரிப்பட்டிணம்), <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Poompuhar (Pumpuhar) (பூம்புகார்), Puhar (புகார்), is</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> the flourishing Sangam era international port town and estuary, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">located in </span>Sirkali taluk (சீர்காழி வட்டம்), Nagapattinam district (நாகப்பட்டிணம் மாவட்டம்), Tamil Nadu, India PIN 609105. <span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Puhar in Tamil means the ‘estuary’ i.e., place where Cauvery river (காவிரி ஆறு) enter into Bay of Bengal. This ancient coastline town served as the capital of early Chola rulers including Karikala Chola (கரிகால சோழன்), Sembian (செம்பியன்), Manu needhi Cholan (மனுநீதி சோழன்). Around 2nd century BC the the ships from Tamralipati (West Bengal), Palur (Orissa) anchored in the celebrated Kaveripoompattinam port before they sailed to Rome, Arabia and other Asian ports. The coastline town is .located 56 km towards North from district head quarters Nagapattinam and the near by cities are Karaikal (36 km), Mayiladuthurai (24 km), Parangipettai (24 km), Sirkali (21 km) and Tarangambadi (24 km).and 249 km from State capital Chennai The place is located in the border of the Nagapattinam district and Cuddalore district. Kaveripoompattinam, an archaeologist delight, lies on the geographical coordinates of 11.144°N and 79.855°E and the elevation / altitude is 6 m above sea level.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">The coastline town </span>is also famous for its great beach with calm surf from where you can witness the river Cauvery with its fresh water meeting the Bay of Bengal and the estuary is adjacent to the beach..I<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">f you have a passion for anything Sangam Tamil literature, history, Social life, Buddhism, fine arts, music, dance, drama, shipping, foreign trade and commerce, archaeological excavation, underwater archeology</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> — you will find it here. </span><br />
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Poompuhar Beach is an ideal picnic spot. Silappadikaram Art Gallery is major tourist attraction and it is a classically built seven tiered architecture highlighting the history of the place, Underwater Archaeological Site Museum, an exclusive museum, was founded to showcase the antiquities recovered from under water exploration. It is the unique Museum in India. There are a number of temples located around Poompuhar. These include: Thiruppallavaneeswaram (near Poompuhar beach), Melapperumpallam and Keezhapperumpallam, Thirusaikkadu (Sayavanam) Chola temple with inscriptions. The coastline town <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">is for those who like to wander amidst history and take a stroll through time. </span>Indian tourism department provides <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">shell shaped cottages for the tourists at a moderate tariff.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> </span><br />
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<b>Glory of Chola Kings in Ancient Tamil Literary Works</b></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; text-align: justify;">Ancient Tamil Sangam literature such as Ahananuru (அகநானுறு), Purananuru (புறநானுறு), and Pattinappalai (பட்டினப்பாலை), and epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai (மணிமேகலை) details about this celebrated town. </span>Musukunda Chakravarthy (முசுகுந்த சக்ரவர்த்தி), a mythological Chola king believed to have ruled Chola kingdom from Karur city. According to the legend Lord Indra sent a ghost (bhootha) to serve Musukunda Chakravarthy. The ghost served the king in the market place of Poompuhar town. The ghost would punish the citizens, if they fail to celebrate the Indra vizha (festival of Indra). </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">"Thoongeyil Erinda Toditol" Sembian was a mythological Chola king who destroyed the fortress. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">தூங்கெயில் எறிந்த தொடிதோள் செம்பியன் (புறநானுறு Puranauru 39)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">தூங்கு எயில் எறிந்த தொடி விளங்கு தடக்கை</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">நாடா நல்லிசை நற்றேர்ச் செம்பியன் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை Cirupanarruppadai 74 - 75)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> 'பலர்புகழ் மூதார்ப் பண்புமேம் படீஇய</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> ஓங்குயர் மலயத் தருந்தவ அரைப்பத் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">அாங்கெயி லெறிந்த தொடித்தோட் செம்பியன் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">' (மணிமேகலை. Manimekalai 1) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">He is considered as one of the early Chola kings during Sangam period. He was instrumental in celebrating the Indra vizha in Kaveripoompattinam. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">There are numerous mentions about Karikala Chola (190 AD) in Tamil Sangam poetry. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">நளியிரு முன்னீர் நாவாய் ஒட்டி </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">வளிதொழில் கண்ட உரவோன் மருக!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">களிஇயல் யானை கரிகால் வளவ!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(புறநானுறு Puranauru 68)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">பெருவளக் கரிகால் </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(அகநானூறு Ahananuru, 125: 18)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">பெருவளக் கரிகால் முன்னிலைச் செல்லார் (அகநானூறு </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Ahananuru</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> 125)</span></div>
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கரிகால் வளவனொடு வெண்ணிப் பறந்தலைப் </div>
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பொருது புண் நாணிய சேரலாதன் (அகநானூறு, <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Ahananuru </span>55: 10-11)</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">உருவப் பஃறேர் இளையோன் சிறுவன்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">தாய்வயிற் றிருந்து தாயம் எய்தி </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(பொருநராற்றுப்படை Porunarruppadai: 130,132)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">‘விண்பொரு பெரும்புகழ் கரிகால் வளவன் (சிலப்பதிகாரம். காதை Silappadikaram Kadhai 6, 160)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The port town might have been enlarged during reign of king Karikala Chola. The Mahavamsa states that Ellalan (205 - 161 BC), a member of the Chola dynasty, ruled 'with even justice toward friend and foe, on occasions of disputes at law and got the title Manu Needhi Cholan (The Chola who follow Manu law). Thiruvalangadu copper plate traces the history of Chola race. Mentions about the Justice rendered by the king to the Cow.</span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;"><b>Buddhist Connection</b></span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px; text-align: left;">Buddhism spread to South India during Emperor Ashoka's reign. </span><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">Arahat Mahinda (Mahendra) lead a</span><span style="line-height: 22.4px;"> group of Buddhist monks to Sri Lanks in 250 BC to spread Buddhism. Mahendra seems to have traveled by sea and on his way he stayed temporarily in Kaveripattinam. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">It is evident that <span style="font-family: "times new roman"; line-height: 22.4px;">seven Buddhist Viharas</span> were erected at Kaveripattinam, by about 400 AD. Manimekalai refers Indra Viharam Ezhu which means seven viharas built by Indra. </span><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">The Tamil Sangam works, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai attribute to Indra.</span><span style="line-height: 22.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; line-height: 22.4px;">Buddhist claim that the name Indra could be the contraction of Mahendra. </span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">Buddhadatta Thera, a 5th century AD Theravada Buddhist scholar who hailed from Uragpura (modern Uraiyur, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu), went to Sri Lanka to study Buddhism in Mahavihara temple. This temple is believed to be the main seat of the ancestral branch for present day Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka founded by King Devananpiya Tissa..The monk also studied and translated the commentaries on the Buddha's teachings from Sinhalese to Pali. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Buddhadatta Thera</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> is said to have written most of his works in Kaveripattinam at the instance of the Buddhist acaryas Sumati, Buddhasika and Sanghapala. Buddhadatta's patron was the Chola king, Kalaber Accutavikkanta,</span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 22.4px;">Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator and scholar. The monk also translated a large body of Sinhala commentaries on the Pāli including Mahavamsa, a Sri Lankan chronicle, Buddhaghosuppatti, a later biographical work and Visuddhimagga. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">According to 'Chulavamsa', Buddhadatta and Buddhaghosa are certainly represented as contemporaries.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Ghadhavansa, a Buddhist treatise mentions about </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">ten famous Buddhist teachers in south of India, including Buddhadatta. Buddhadatta regards the Chola kingdom with respect and associate his literary activity with the reign of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Accutavikkanata or Accutavikkama of the Kalabbha or Kalamba [kadamba] dynasty.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The Prakrit texts Abhidhammavatara and Buddhavamasattakatha</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">written at Kveripattinam, by about 400 AD. attest to the flourishing nature of the port town</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Milaidapana</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">and Buddha Jataka</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> also provide evidence for the prospering Chola port. According to </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Buddhist Jataka, one Akitti is said to have lived in a garden near Kaveripattinam. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Foreigners' Notes on Kaveripattinam</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, composed during the time of Domitian (81 – 96 AD), has provided brief information on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce. About half a century later Ptolemy, the renowned geographer brought out more information about Chola kingdom, its capital, ports and commerce.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The earliest reference to Kaveripoompattinam is noticed in a Prakrit inscription of 2nd century BC found at Bharhut in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, India. The Bharhut stupa is believed to have been first built by the Maurya emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, However many works of art were apparently added during the Shunga period. The Bharhut inscriptions are viewed with the considerable significance because they trace the history of early Indian Buddhism and Buddhist art. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The inscription refers to the gift of a stone slab for an enclosure of a stupa by a Buddhist nun called Soma, who hailed from the city Kakandi Kakandi according to Manimekalai was one of the names of Kaveripattinam. The gift of slab by the Buddhist nun Soma of Kakandi, as early as 2nd century BC, shows that Kaveripattinam was a flourishing town and that it served as an important Buddhist centre till at least 8th century AD. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="color: red;">kakandiya somaya bichuniya danam (காகந்தியா சோமாய பிச்சுனியா தானம் )</span> (Corpus Inscriptorum Indicarum Vol. II Part II)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>Ascendance of Pallava Dynasty</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Pallavas slowly extended their power to the south and Kaveripattinam was included in the Pallava territory. The temple Pallavanisvaram should have been built sometime in the beginning of 6th century AD. by a Pallava monarch, whose name is not known. In the reign of Rakasimha a Buddha vihara is said to have been erected at Nagapattinam.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><b>Excavations at Poompuhar</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">In Indic mythology, Manimekala is a goddess regarded as a guardian of the seas. The epic Manimekalai vividly describes the Kaveripoompattinam. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Indra Vizha (Annual Indra Festival)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> was a very popular festival in ancient Tamil Nadu according to twin Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">If Indra Vizha is not celebrated, goddess Manimekala would cause the wrath and the Town of Kaveripattinam would be swallowed up by the sea.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“தீவகச் சாந்தி செய்யா நாள்உன்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">காவல் மாநகர் கடல்வயிறு புகூஉம்” (மணிமேகலை: 24:62-63)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">According to Manimekalai, the Chola king had lost his son. In a grip of grief the Chola king forgot to celebrate the Indra Vizha (Annual Indra Festival). Hence Kaveripattinam was swallowed up by the sea (destroyed by kadalkol - "swallowed by the sea.")</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“மணிமேகலா தெய்வம் மற்றது பொறாஅல்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">அணிநகர் தன்னை அலைகடல் கொள்கென</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">விட்டனள் சாபம் பட்டதிதுவால்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">கடவுள் மாநகர் கடல்கொள” (மணிமேகலை 25:198-201)</span></div>
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Literary works and archaeological evidence suggest repeated Tsunami, sea incursions, erosion and floods in Kaveripattinam. The Sea submerged the original city and at present there is only a small village. Thirusaikadu or Sayavanam, Pallavanisvaram, Melapperumpallam, Keelaperumpallam, Keezaiyur and Vanagiri are the remains of ancient Poompuhar that exist today.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="poomphuar+2.jpg (640×434)" height="271" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDBfXZErd0sO9raAF-hUEwMo0lGZ0dBKedPP-sdBO-i-4RKebQfrXFb6TXoTcGlmQeQWqrxKFkKybpwjtMiRWpKQRWtEffurt4XgTrmKbcN70islTsINyqbXN2xf1RnWID3XQ8FRng_mA/s400/poomphuar+2.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Under water Excavation PC Tamizharsenai</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="poompuhar-smithMike_poompuhur1.gif (480×547)" height="400" src="https://grahamhancock.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/poompuhar-smithMike_poompuhur1.gif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="351" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">11000 Years Old U Shaped Structure Graham Hancock</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="phompuhar+1.jpg (538×347)" height="257" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZJjJYRgG9dOR_CyMirp4UDAi_pmQoUtQQyIwQeOYGWBjnKrJHwcwd_yQqiTXlrY7EgrPscMhr6sznSYM2KMHA3CExVfIVWhoy-pNrJ_ilsMfZONOtT_PTx5WorBjrpLOIwD6aRGMO_dQ/s400/phompuhar+1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px; text-align: center;">Under-water Excavations in Poompuhar.</td></tr>
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Under-sea Exploration was conducted by the State Department of Archeology in collaboration with the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, India during 1990 - 94 and 1997. T<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">he under sea archaeological explorations around Poompuhar throws light on the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">lead ingots</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The team also discovered </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">storage jars in the inter tidal zone and brick structures, stone structures, pottery from offshore explorations. Few references also suggest the shift of shoreline at Poompuhar and Tranquebar and that could be one of the reasons of its submergence. </span>Under-sea Exploration resulted in a site museum.<br />
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Graham Hancock, a British marine archaeologist and author was involved in examining a submerged city on the East Coast of Tamil Nadu. According to Hancock, the civilization thriving in Poompuhar may predate the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and could certainly existed before the Harappan civilization in India and Pakistan. He also added that his underwater explorations conducted in 2001 provided strong evidence that corroborated Tamil mythological stories of ancient floods. He also ascertained that the tidal waves of 400 feet or more could have swallowed this flourishing port city any time between 17,000 and 7,000 years ago. His conclusion is that "the Poompuhar underwater site could well provide evidence that it was the cradle of modern civilization." Theory of this British marine archaeologist strengthened the findings of India's National Institute of Oceanography (NIO). The U-shaped structure gleaned during the joint SES/NIO (Hancock ) expedition is shown below.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Marine Archaeological Museum. State Department of Archeology Tamil Nadu</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Off-shore explorations were carried out</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> near Champapathi Amman and Pallavanisvaram temples,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Poompuhar right from 1910. During the excavations remains of the various buildings were found:</span><br />
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Wharf Unearthed near Poompuhar. PC TN State Arch</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="excavation_ring_well_12823.jpg (337×233)" src="http://www.indianetzone.com/photos_gallery/33/excavation_ring_well_12823.jpg" height="276" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Excavated Site with Exposed Structure & Ring well @ Poompuhar PC Indianetzone</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="museum_pic_3.jpg (900×500)" src="http://www.view360.in/tnarch/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/museum_pic_3.jpg" height="222" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Terracota Marine Archaeological Museum PC Dept TN State Arch </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The site of Buddha Vihara (brick structure) dated 4th - 5th century AD. at Pallavanisvaram, near Kaveripoompattinam, was excavated by the ASI and it is established that the ruins formed part of Kaveripoompattinam. The ancient Buddha vihara was built with burnt bricks (of different dimensions) and they have used mud mortar as the binding material. For the basement they used bricks with 36.25 x 18.75 x 7.5 cm size bricks and for superstructure they have used 23.75 x 12,5 x 5 cm size bricks. ASI also discovered a Buddha statue, and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Buddhapada (dimension: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">3 1/2' x 2 1/2'</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">) or the feet of Lord Buddha in limestone </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">at this site.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Buddha Monastery. Pallavanesvram PC Panoramio</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Buddha Monastery. Pallavanesvram PC Sharon St Joan</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Manigramam is a village in Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu. It is located 5 km from Poompuhar. Famous Thirumani Azhagar temple is located in this village. Tamil Nadu Department of Archeology team excavated in 95 two intact portions of a brick wall as well as the collapsed structure dating between 3rd century B.C. and 2nd century AD.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Two brick walls running </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Northeast-Southwest at a depth of 20 cm was discovered in Kilayur (Kizharveli). They have also used mud mortar as the binding material. The structure is considered to have served as a wharf in the 4th century AD. ASI has observed four wooden poles - two palmyra tree trunks and two Iluppai </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(Bassia Longifolia) tree trunks - were used for this wharf.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">A wharf belonging to the 3rd century BC was excavated at Poompuhar in 1962-63 and a similar wharf was unearthed in the subsequent excavation during 1997. Several kinds of brick figures and copper coins were also found.</span><br />
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<b>City Layout</b><br />
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The structure of Poompuhar town can be traced from the fifth chapter of the Silappadikaram, Pattinappalai. Manimekalai also describes the same. Pattinappalai is one of the poem in the Sangam anthology of longer poems, the Ten Idylls (Patthupattu). Poet Katiyalur Uruttiran Kannanar vividly captures the glories and splendour of Kaveripoompattinam and its king Tirumavalavan a.k.a Karikala Cholan. The poem is categorized into three segments. Segment one, comprising 218 lines, details the fertility, prosperity and affluence of the great town Poompuhar. The segment also provides an account of the perennial flow of water in the holy river Cauvery in Chola kingdom, bewildering wealth, the layout of the city, the harbor, the custom-house, and the life of various people belonging different occupations. The second segment is about the life and achievements of the king Tirumavalavan. The third segment deals with poetic theme pertaining to 'Palai'<br />
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The five Manrams - Vellidai Manram, Elanchi Manram, Nedankal mandram, Bootha-chathukkam and Pavaimanram were located in Pattinappakkam. Gardens like Elavanthikaicholai, Uyyavanam, Champathivanam, and Kaveravanam added beauty to the town.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><i>Symbolical Monuments Reproduced </i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">In 1973 Kalaingar Dr.M.Karunanithi the Honoruable Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu gave crystal form to the lost town,by reproducing it on the basis of literary evidences. Several Symbolical monuments were raised. Sillappadikaram-Art gallery, <span style="font-size: 16px;">Elanchi</span> Mandram, Pavai Mandram, Nedungal Mandram and Kotrappandal found their existence and remain today, to attract visitors, with their artistic splendor.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Temples</i></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">During excavations, temples for Lord Shiva, and Chathukka Bootham, the last of the deities were found in the city. There are temples for Shiva, Indra, his elephant Iravatham, and his Vajrayutham, Balaraman, Suriyan, Machatham, Chandran, Arugan and Thirumal. Buddha stupas or pillars and seven Buddha viharas were also found. Apart from these, a temple for Champapathi Amman, brick idols, and Ulaga Aravi Manram existed in Poompuhar.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><i>'Maya school of Town Planning and Architecture.'</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Silappadikaram elaborates the town planning of Kaveripoompattinam including its avenues, streets, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">mansions, residences of foreign merchants </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">groves, gardens, market places, petty traders and workshops, It was an excellent example of town planning during 100</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> BC</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> with well laid streets occupied by Yavana sailors and overseas traders, weavers, silk traders, grain merchants, jewelers and precision gems makers and petty traders, According Pattinappalai, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, the town planning followed the 'Maya school of Town Planning and Architecture.'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><i>Two Broad Divisions</i></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">From the description of these ancient Tamil literature Kaveripoompattinam was laid out on the north banks of the river Cauvery and was divided into two broad divisions i.e., Maruvurpakkam near the sea-shore and Pattiinappakkam to its west. A market place was located, under shady trees, in between the two divisions. The day market was known as 'Nalangadi' and the night market was named as "Allangadi.' Pakkam means a place adjacent to the sea-shore or hillock. Here pakkam signifies the place by the side of the sea-shore. Greeks (Yavanars) and other merchants from foreign countries resided in the outskirts of Maruvurpakkam and carried their business.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">பயன றவறியா யவன ரிருக்கை </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 10)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">நீரின்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">வந்த</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">நிமிர்பரிப்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">புரவியும்</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">காலின்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">வந்த</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">கருங்கறி</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மூடையும்</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">வடமலைப்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பிறந்த</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">மணியும்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பொன்னும்</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">குடமலைப்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">பிறந்த</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">ஆரமும்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">அகிலும்</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தென்கடல்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">முத்துங்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">குணகடல்</span> <span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">துகிரும்</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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(Pattinappalai 1. 185 - 189)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">At the limits of this prosperous town<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">The majestic horses arrive by land.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">From the northern range comes gems and
gold;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Akil and sandal from western ghats,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">And pearls from the southern seas are
heaped,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">And corals from eastern waves;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Maruvurpakkam was populated by the fishermen. The settlements of foreign (Yavanar) merchants had terraced mansions, granaries and warehouses </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">with windows shaped like the eyes of the deer</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> and they have chosen to live closer to the sea-coast and to the ship-yard. Their presence nearer to the ship-yard enabled the Chola Customs Officials to collect duties from them and to affix the Customs Seal (Tiger Mark) on the imported goods. The Customs Officials will not permit the removal of the imported goods from the dockyard until they remit the appropriate Customs Duty. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">நீரினின்று</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">நிலத்தேறவு</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">நிலத்தினின்று</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">நீர்ப்பரப்பவு</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">மலந்தறியாப்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">பலபண்டம்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">வரம்பறியாமை</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">வந்தீண்டி</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">யருங்கடிப்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">பெருங்காப்பின்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">வலியுடை</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">வல்லணங்கினோன்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">புலிபொறித்துப்</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">புறம்போக்கி</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">(Patiinappalai 1. 129 - 136) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">On mountain slopes, that flows down
plains<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">And rushes to merge with surging waves,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">The countless cargoes from the land<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Are shifted to the ships in the sea;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">And loads and loads of cargoes there,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Quite varied beyond conceptual mind<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Are moved to the land from the anchored
ships<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">And piled up there in heaps and heaps.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">In the custom-house that's to enter
hard,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">The ensign, a terror to thieves around<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Stamp the royal Chola's sign <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Of tiger on every piece before <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">It crosses the line of custom-house.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The streets </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">next to the quarters occupied by the Yavanars or the foreign merchants </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">were occupied by wandering pedlar selling </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">colored pastes, unguents, fragrant sandal, flowers, eaglewood and perfumes. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Weavers who worked on silk, fur and cotton thread resided in adjacent streets. Heaps of silks, corals, sandal, eaglewood, </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">flawless pears, gems, gold and other precious articles were sold in broad streets. G</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">rain markets ,adjacent to broad street, sold different kinds of grains and pulses exhibited in separate heaps. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">வளந்தலை மயங்கிய நனந்தலை மறுகும்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 21)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Piffling traders, in an open street, sold baked sweet flour and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">fried flour-cakes; women sold toddy; various other traders include salt merchants, betel-leaf sellers, goat traders and oil merchants. There was also a meat market. Another adjacent street was full of </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">bronze-smiths, copper-smiths, carpenters, strong armed black-smiths, gold-smiths who melt gold and those who make ornaments out of gold, Another part of the street occupied by </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">tailors who stitch covers made of leather and different categories of skilled craftsmen produced handicrafts from cloth and pith. Another street inhabited by musicians with the ability to compose </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">seven notes beginning with kural on wind instruments like flute and the stringed instruments like yazh. Also there were dwelling places of petty workers who earn their livelihood by serving others. Maruvurpakkam is the town populated by all these people. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">சிறுகுறுங் கைவினைப் பிறர்வினை யாளரொடு</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">மறுவின்றி விளங்கும் மருவூர்ப் பாக்கமும<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 38-39)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><b>Pattinappakkam</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">The palace of the king is located in Pattinappakkam (பட்டினப்பாக்கம்) and the King's (Raja) street was the main highway here (கோவியன் வீதியும், கொடித்தேர் வீதியும்). A few stalls in a bazaar street near the palace sold the ordinary necessities. The leading merchants, the pious brahmins, thrifty farmers, the ayurvedic physicians and the astrologers (ஆயுள் வேதரும் காலக் கணிதரும்) dwell in independent streets in different types of houses appropriate to each class of people, the various designs presenting by contrast a picturesque sight.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">People who made bangles and rings out of conch-shells, and pearl bead sellers lived in parallel streets on the western side of the palace. The king's retinue and courtiers lived in broad streets within reach of the palace. The Sootars (சூதர்) or those who stand and praise, the Makadars (மாகதர்) or those who sit and praise, the time reckoners (நாழிகைக் கணக்கர்), and the dancers (santhi-koothar) lived in various streets near the palace. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">சூதர் மாகதர் வேதா ளிகரொடு </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">நாழிகைக் கணக்கர் நலம்பெறு கண்ணுளர் </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">காவல் கணிகையர் ஆடல் கூத்தியர்</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">The cooks, musicians, the drummers in festivals and on the battle-field and buffoons (நகைவேழம்பர்) lived in houses of various types and dimensions suitable to their calling and circumstance.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">நகைவே ழம்பரொடு வகைதெரி இருக்கையும்,</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Beyond these streets where servants of royal household had their respective quarters, were the residences of those who trained horses and elephants. The open spaces where the horses were trained for military purposes are known as Cenduveli (செண்டுவெளி). This was the Pattina-p-pakkam or the urban portion of the city.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Between Maruvurpakkam and Pattinappakkam there was a large open area where the day-market (நாளங்காடி) was centrally situated in a site which presented the appearance of a vast plain between two opposing forces. In the market there were stalls for selling a variety of goods. Each stall floated a flag announcing the name of the article sold therein. The trees around provided cool shade and breeze.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">இருபெரு வேந்தர் முனையிடம் போல </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">இருபால் பகுதியின் இடைநிலம் ஆகிய<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">கடைகால் யாத்த மிடைமரச் சோலை (59 - 61)</span></div>
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In the centre of the area set apart for the market and where the main streets intersected, there was a temple dedicated to Chathukka Bootham (சதுக்கபூதம்), the Guardian Deity of the city.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chathukka Bootham Wikipedia</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Vellidai Mandram (வெள்ளிடை மன்றம்) is the square with the open space was used as warehouse stored with packages showing the names, symbols </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">and the nature</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"> of the merchandise contained in them and the names of the owners. The place is neither guarded by the watch at the gates nor iron bolts on the door. Stealing a package would be very difficult.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Elanchi Mandram (இலஞ்சி மன்றம்) is the square with the pool. Hunchbacks, the dwarfs, the dumbs, the deafs and the lepers who bathe in this pool are cured of their deformities and acquire attractive complexion. They then gratefully circumambulate the square.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Nedungal Mandram PC Flickriver</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Nedungal Mandram (நெடுங்கல் மன்றம்) is the square with the tall and bright stone pillar. People drugged to madness by enemies; those who have consumed poisonous food and shiver due to pain; those who are suffering from snake bite; and those who suffer under the influence of devils would go around the stone pillar and worship it in order to get cured from the afflictions. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Paavai Mandram (பாவை மன்றம்) is the place of justice and if injustice is done to 'Paavai' (idol) by people they would certainly shed tears.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">Kotrappandal (கொற்றபந்தல்) was the ornamental shamiana presented by the king of the 'Vajra' country (வஜ்ர நாடு).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">The town also had well laid out gardens like Elavanthikai Cholai (இலவந்திகை சோலை), Uyyavanam (உய்யவனம்), Champapathyvanam (சம்பாபதிவனம்) and Kaverivanam (காவேரி வானம்). Temples for Shiva, Chadukka Boodham, Indra, Balarama, Surya (Sun), Machathan, Chandra (Moon), Tirumal (Vishnu) and Arugan (Jain) where there besides Buddha stupa and seven Buddha Viharas, Champapathy Amman temple, brick idols and Ulagu Arivai Mandram (உலகு அரிவை மன்றம்).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px;">A Buddhist vihara and a chaitya were also located in the area. </span>Pattinappalai refers to people from various countries residing amicably at Puhar. Manimekalai refers to artisans from the Magadha, Avanti and Maratta countries.and also Greek sculptors Yavanat taccars working at Kaveripattinam.<br />
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<span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; text-align: justify;">Kaveripoompattinam</span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif; text-align: justify;"> is well-connected to a number of neighboring towns by network of roads Sirkali (21 km) and Mayiladuthurai (23.7 Km).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Sirkali (21 km) and Vaithisvaran kovil (17 km), Mayiladuturai (23.7 km) Railway Stations are the very nearby railway stations. However Thanjavur Railway Station is major railway station 92 km near to Kaveripoompattinam </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Near by Airports: Chennai Airport (<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>226 km), Madurai Airport (265 km)</span></div>
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Reference</b></span></div>
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<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif;">ASI set up centre to showcase relics of ancient port city. Times of India. March 25, 2009.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif;">Buddhadatta Wikipedia</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 20.16px;">Gaur A. S. and Sundaresh, Underwater Exploration off Poompuhar and possible causes of its Submergence, 1998, Puratattva, 28: 84-90.</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;">Glad Tidings: The Lost City Poompuhar. Peepal Prodigy School. (http://www.peepalprodigy.com/glad-tidings-the-lost-city-poompuhar/)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">History of Poompuhar. Archaeological Excavations.
Blogspot. January 11, 2011 (</span><a href="http://archaeologyexcavations.blogspot.in/2011/01/history-of-poompuhar.html?m=1" style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">http://archaeologyexcavations.blogspot.in/2011/01/history-of-poompuhar.html?m=1</a><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif;">Indian history: What is the history behind Poompuhar in Indian history? Quora. (https://www.quora.com/Indian-history-What-is-the-history-behind-Poompuhar-in-Indian-history)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Inside Story: In search of a lost city. Lakshmi
Sharath. The Hindu Metroplus. October 7, 2011
(http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/inside-story-in-search-of-a-lost-city/article2517975.ece)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kaveripoompattinam (http://210.212.62.26/pdf_files/books/Kaveripoompattinam.pdf)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif;">Pattinappalai ( A Note on Poem & Translation ) by Devendran B. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 068 - December 2005 (http://www.ulakaththamizh.org/JOTSArticle.aspx?id=558)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poompuhar-Ancient Chola city in Tamil Nadu, India,Kumari
Kundam. Hinduism and Sanadan Dharma. April 5, 2015. (</span><a href="https://pparihar.com/2015/04/05/poompuhar-ancient-chola-city-in-tamil-naduindiakumari-kundam/" style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">https://pparihar.com/2015/04/05/poompuhar-ancient-chola-city-in-tamil-naduindiakumari-kundam/</a><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poompuhar. Department of Archaeology. (http://www.tnarch.gov.in/excavation/poo.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Poompuhar. Tamil Nadu Tourism.
(http://www.tamilnadutourism.org/places/citiestowns/Poompuhar.aspx)</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">South India and Buddhagosa. Buddhagosa. August, 18, 2010 (http://ghosagvp.blogspot.in/2010_08_01_archive.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">Tourism in Poompuhar Tourism of India (http://www.tourism-of-india.com/poompuhar-tour/)</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">பட்டினப்பாலை. கடியலூர் உருத்திரங் கண்ணனார் Project Madurai. (http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0077.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">சதுக்கபூதம் Wikipedia</span></li>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3u5jKfZhQBg?list=PLkoh3Vjd0aU03GDeImv_rOd6TgAje_-RY" width="560"></iframe>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com3Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu, India11.1503007 79.84367959999997311.119142700000001 79.803339099999974 11.1814587 79.884020099999972tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-41283763152307590602016-12-31T05:53:00.002-08:002016-12-31T05:53:26.320-08:00Dance and Drama of Ancient Tamils: Part 2 As Illustrated in Aragetru Kadhai, Silappadikaram <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Madhavi PC The Hindu</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"><b>Silappadikaram: Treasure Trove of Music and Dance</b> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The post-Sangam period is noted for the compilation five great epics </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Silappadikaram (சிலப்பதிகாரம்), Manimekalai (மணிமேகலை), Jivakacintamani (சீவகசிந்தாமணி), Valaiyapati (வளையாபதி), and Kundalakesi (குண்டலகேசி). Thiruthanigai Ula (திருத்தணிகை உலா), early 19th century minor literary work, first mentioned the names of five great epics. Another minor literary work Tamil Vidu Toothu (தமிழ்விடு தூது) referred five great epics as 'Panchakavyam' (பஞ்சகவ்யம்). </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Five great epics, written over a period of 1st century AD to 10th century AD, portrays the social, religious, cultural and academic life of Tamil society during Sangam era. Dance, music and drama were always been part of ancient Tamil society. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Silapadikaram (‘The Story of Anklet’), composed by Ilango adigal (இளங்கோ அடிகள்), the Jain poet-prince from Chera country, is considered as the treasure trove of information on music and dance, (both classical and folk) of the period, dealing in great detail with the intricacies and techniques involved. It contains three chapters and a total of 5270 lines (13,870 words) of poetry. The epic, as in Sangam poems, do not revolve around the five land divisions (திணை) (Kurinji (குறிஞ்சி), Mullai (</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">முல்லை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">), Marudam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">மருதம்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">), Neidal (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">நெய்தல்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) and Palai </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(பாலை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">). Instead it adopts the novel convention of considering the geographical and political divisions of Tamil country i.e., Chola (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சோழர்)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">, Pandya </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">(பாண்டியர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> and Chera (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">சேரர்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) in relation to their capitals i.e., Poompukar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பூம்புகார்),</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Madurai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">மதுரை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">), and Vanji </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">(வஞ்சி</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">. Thus the epic was aptly divided into three Kandams (Cantos) i.e., Pukark-kandam (புகார்க் காண்டம் – Pukar canto), Maduraik-kandam (மதுரைக் காண்டம் – Madurai canto) and Vanchik-kandam (வஞ்சிக் காண்டம் – Vanchi canto). It uses akaval meter (monologue) (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">அகவற்பா</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">), a style adopted in most poems in Sangam literature. Adiyarkk unallar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">அடியார்க்கு நல்லார்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">), renowned Silappadikaram commentator, delineated the essential nature of poems by virtue of content that forms a unity of having elements of poetry (iyal), music (isai) and drama (natakam) (இயல் இசை நாடக பொருள் தொடர் நிலை செய்யுள்). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The date is assignable to 2nd century AD. U. V. Swaminatha Iyer (உ.வே சுவாமிநாத அய்யர்) (1855-1942 CE) found that the ancient Tamil poems in </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">palm leaf manuscripts</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">left in a state of neglect and gradual destruction. The Tamil scholar </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> resurrected Silappadikaram from palm leaf format and reprinted the epic from palm leaf format to paper book format in 1892 AD. So we are familiar with the printed book of this epic for the past 124 years only.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The epic is attributable for standardizing the folk songs to literary genre. The epic also details about``yazh'' (14 stringed instrument - lute) as well as various various Panns, their grammar and demonstrates how different compositions of swaras to result into different ragas with the help of the ``yazh'</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><b>Silappadikaram Story</b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Silappadikaram is the first Tamil epic composed about the life of an ordinary countryman. Kovalan was the son of the merchant prince Masathuvan (மாசாத்துவான்) </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மண்தேய்த்த புகழினான் மதிமுக மடவார்தம் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பண்தேய்த்த மொழியினார் ஆயத்துப் பாராட்டிக் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கண்டுஏத்தும் செவ்வேள்என்று இசைபோக்கிக் காதலால் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கொண்டுஏத்தும் கிழமையான் கோவலன்என் பான்மன்னோ.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">That boy was such great fame that the earth was too small to contain it. He was such beauty that moon face damsels, with speech sweet as music, became enamoured of him and sang his praise in the company of girl friends saying: "This is verily Lord Murugan taking visible form to be worshiped by us." His name was Kovalan.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Kannagi was the daughter of the celebrated sea captain Manaikan (மாநாய்கன்). </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">போதில்ஆர் திருவினாள் புகழுடை வடிவென்றும் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தீதிலா வடமீனின் திறம்இவள் திறம்என்றும் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மாதரார் தொழுதுஏத்த வயங்கிய பெருங்குணத்துக் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">காதலாள் பெயர்மன்னும் கண்ணகிஎன் பாள்மன்னோ,</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">"The beauty of this damsel is like that of goddess Lakshmi who dwells on the lotus. Her virtue is truly like that of the North Star. She was in love with goodness; her name was Kannagi." </span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="aannouncement.jpg (500×375)" height="300" src="https://tamilandvedas.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/aannouncement.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;">Kannagi Kovalan Wedding Procession PC Vallamai<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மாலைதாழ் சென்னி வயிரமணித் தூணகத்து </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">நீல விதானத்து நித்திலப்பூம் பந்தர்க்கீழ்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வான்ஊர் மதியம் சகடுஅணைய வானத்துச்<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>50</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சாலி ஒருமீன் தகையாளைக் கோவலன் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மாமுது பார்ப்பான் மறைவழி காட்டிடத் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தீவலம் செய்வது ... ..</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The parents of <span style="line-height: 18.4px;">of Kovalan and Kannagi</span> celebrated the marriage on an auspicious day on which the Rohini star joins the moon. In a hall with gem studded pillars, decorated with flower garlands hanging above, under the canopy of blue silk and pearls, with the preceptor guiding him, Kovalan married Kannagi. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The couple united like the god of love and his spouse and </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">lived together happily for some time. Kovalan's parents gave a part of the family wealth along with a number of servitors and helped them set up their own household. Kannagi managed her household in a praiseworthy manner.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="p16.jpg (786×541)" src="http://www.nagapattinam.tn.nic.in/images/p16.jpg" height="275" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kovalan - Madhavi</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Kovalan met the dancer Madhavi (மாமலர் நெடுங்கண் மாதவி) with lotus like eyes in a festival at royal court </span></span><span style="text-align: start;">and fell in love with her. He stayed in Madhavi's home and was so enthralled in embracing her and did not like to part her. In </span>such an infatuation he forgot Kannagi and his home..<br />
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மணமனை புக்கு மாதவி தன்னொடு </div>
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அணைவுறு வைகலின் அயர்ந்தனன் மயங்கி </div>
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விடுதல் அறியா விருப்பினன் ஆயினன். </div>
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வடுநீங்கு சிறப்பின்தன் மனையகம் மறந்து</div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Kovalan also spent all his wealth, obtained through his ancestors, for Madhavi. He got frustrated with Madhavi after some time and breaks off from Madhavi. He returned repentantly to his uncomplaining wife Kannagi.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சலம்புணர் கொள்கைச் சலதியொடு ஆடிக் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">குலம்தரு வான்பொருள் குன்றம் தொலைந்த</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">இலம்பாடு நாணுத் தரும்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Kannagi gave her pair of anklets willingly (நலம்கேழ் முறுவல் நகைமுகம் காட்டிச் சிலம்புஉள கொண்மின்) and Kovalan hoped to recoup his fortunes by selling one of his wife's anklets </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">They proceeded to the great city Madurai. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(சிலம்பு முதலாகச் சென்ற கலனொடு உலந்தபொருள் ஈட்டுதல் உற்றேன் மலர்ந்தசீர் மாட மதுரை யகத்துச்சென்று). On arrival at Madurai they found shelter in a cottage. Kovalan visited to the Madurai market to sell one of the anklet. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">In the meant time, an extremely wicked jeweller robbed the anklet (appearing similar to Kannagi's anklet) of the queen of Pandyan Nedunchezhiyan. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">On seeing the Kovalan with Kannagi's anklet, the jeweller seized the same and informed the king. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சிலம்பின் செய்வினை யெல்லாம்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பொய்த்தொழிற் கொல்லன் புரிந்துடன் நோக்கிக்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கோப்பெருந் தேவிக் கல்லதை இச்சிலம்பு</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">யாப்புற வில்லை யெனமுன் போந்து</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">விறல்மிகு வேந்தற்கு விளம்பியான் வரவென்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சிறுகுடி லங்கண் இருமின்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Kovalan was accused as the thief (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சிலம்பு கொண்ட கள்வன்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">). The Pandyan sent his guards to apprehend Kovalan and the guards killed Kovalan and taken the anklet to Pandya's court. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">... ... என் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தாழ்பூங் கோதை தன்காற் சிலம்பு</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கன்றிய கள்வன் கைய தாகில்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கொன்றச் சிலம்பு கொணர்க</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கல்லாக் களிமக னொருவன் கையில்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வெள்வாள் எறிந்தனன் விலங்கூ டறுத்தது</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">காவலன் செங்கோல் வளைஇய வீழ்ந்தனன்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கோவலன் பண்டை ஊழ்வினை உருத்தென்.</span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: justify;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Puhar-KannagiInPandyaCourt.jpg (1215×999)" src="http://www.vallamai.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Puhar-KannagiInPandyaCourt.jpg" height="328" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kannagi in Pandya Court PC Vallamai</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பொங்கி எழுந்தாள் விழுந்தாள் ....</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">செங்கண் சிவப்ப அழுதாள்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The news of Kovalan's murder reached Kannagi and her eyes ablaze with anger she rushed immediately with her remaining anklet (நின்ற சிலம்பொன்று கையேந்தி). She proved her husband's innocence before Pandyan Nedunchezhiyan. Kannagi cursed the Madurai city to set ablaze to flames. The patron goddess of Madurai city interceded Kannagi and she accepted to withdraw her curse and the fire ablated. Later Kannagi reached the hill outside the city and after her death she reunited with Kovalan in heaven. The news of her struggle and death spread across the Tamil Land. Kannagi was deified, people built temples and held festivals in honor of Kannagi. She became an icon of wifely loyalty and chastity and she is being deified as patron goddess.</span><br />
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<b>Commentary of Adiyakku Nallar on Koothu</b> </div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><span style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">In the third chapter, Arangetrukaadai” (அரங்கேற்று காதை) or “the debut on-stage performance,” </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">details the knowledge and skills necessary for a dancer, dance master (ஆடல் ஆசான்), the composer of verses (பாடல் ஆசிரியர்), the drummer (percussion) instrumentalist (தண்ணுமை (மிருதங்கம்) என்னும் தாளவிசைக் கருவி வாசிப்பவர்), flutist (புல்லாங்குழல் (வாய்க்காற்றால் ஊதி இசைக்கப்படும் கருவி) வாசிப்பவர்) and yazh (lute) (string) instrumentalist (யாழ் நரம்பு இசைக்கருவி வாசிப்பவர்).</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman;">இருவகைக் கூத்தின் இலக்கணம் அறிந்து </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">பலவகைக் கூத்தும் விலக்கினிற் புணர்த்துப் </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">பதினோர் ஆடலும் பாட்டும் கொட்டும் </span><br />
<span style="font-family: times new roman;">விதிமாண் கொள்கையின் விளங்க அறிந்து</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The dance master should know the nuances of the two 'koothus' i.e., Aka-koothu (அகக்கூத்து) and Pura-koothu (புறக்கூத்து). Aka-koothu, also known as 'Vettiyal-koothu,' (வேத்தியல் கூத்து) will be performed in royal courts before king and the royal court-officials. Pura</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">-koothu, also known as 'Pothuviyal-koothu,' (பொதுவியல் கூத்து) will be performed before common mass. The dance master should also be proficient in eleven modes of dances: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">1.Kadayam (கடையம்), 2. Marakkal (மரக்கால்), 3.Kudai (குடை), 4.Thudi (துடி), 5.Mal (மால்), 6.Alliam (அல்லியம்), 7.Kumbam / kudam (கும்பம் / குடம்), 8.Pedu (பேடு), 9.Pavai (பாவை): 10. Pandarangam (பாண்டரங்கம்), and 11. Kodukotti (கொடுகொட்டி). A Tamil poem helps one to remember these eleven dance modes: </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px; text-align: center;">'கடையம், அயிராணி மரக்கால்விந்தை, கந்தன், குடை, துடிமால், அல்லியமல், கும்பம் - சுடர்விழியால் பட்டமதன் பேடுதிருப் பாவை அரண் பாண்டரங்கம் கொட்டியிவை காண்பதினோர் கூத்து'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Adiyarkku Nallar (12th / 13th century AD), renowned commentator, covers the entire work of Silappadikaram and cites the ancient Tamil works on verse, prose and drama in his commentary. The commentator details the koothus in pairs:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">1. <i>Vettiyal (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">வேத்தியல்</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) </i><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">against</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Pothuviyal (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">பொதுவியல்</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">; 2. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Santhi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>சாந்திக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) against Vinotha koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>விநோதக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">; 3. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Vari koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வரிக்கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) </i><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">against</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Vari-Santhi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வரிசாந்திக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">; 4. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Vasai koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வசைக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) </i><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">against</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Pukal koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>புகழ்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">; 5. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ariya koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>ஆரியக் கூத்து)</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> </i><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">against</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Tamil koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தமிழ்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">; 6. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Eyalpu koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>இயல்புக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) </i><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">against</span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> Desi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தேசிக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>Santhi koothu</i> </span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>சாந்திக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> comprise four kinds of koothus i.e., 1. <i>Chokam (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>சொக்கம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 2. <i>Mei koothu (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>மெய்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 3. <i>Abinaya (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>அவிநயம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> and 4. <i>Natakam (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>நாடகம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>. Chokam, also known as <i>'Suddha Nrittam,' (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>சுத்த நிருத்தம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> which constitutes '108 Thandava Karanas' (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">108 தாண்டவ கரணங்கள்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) <i>Mei koothu</i> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>(</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>மெய்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> is made up of dumb-shows with gesticulations and conventional posturing. <i>Abhinaya (அவிநயம்)</i> depicts in action and poses, the feelings and sensations as experienced by the person, as described by the words of the songs. Abinaya includes both <i>Rasa-abinaya</i> and <i>Vachika-abinaya</i>. Natakam relates to huge story or epic. The play is divided into many scenes of poems and conversations. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>Natakam (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>நாடகம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> is based on Sanskrit and Tamil literature. Since </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Vinotha koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>விநோதக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> is oriented towards entertainment, fun and play, it incorporates some quantity of artful trickery and jugglery i.e., balancing on rope, puppetry, balancing tiers of pots on the head etc., It includes seven variants: 1. <i>Kuravai koothu (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>குரவைக் கூத்து</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 2. <i>Kallai koothu (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>கல்லைக் கூத்து)</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">, 3. <i>Kuda koothu (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>குடக் கூத்து</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 4. <i>Karanam (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>கரணம்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 5. <i>Nokku (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>நோக்கு</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, 6. <i>Thodpavai Koothu (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தோற்பாவைக் கூத்து</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> and 7. </span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Vinotha koothu</i><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>விநோதக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><br /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Vari koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வரிக்கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> is performed by actors with songs (pieces of poems set into music) with occasional interludes. 1. <i>Kurathi pattu (குறத்தி பாட்டு)</i> and 2. <i>Ulathi pattu (உழத்தி பாட்டு)</i> are specific Tamil poetic compositions. <i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Vari-Santhi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வரிசாந்திக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> is the variation of Vari-koothu.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Vasai koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>வசைக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> deals with satire and <i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Pukal koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>புகழ்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> deals with eulogizing or praise formally and eloquently.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Ariya koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>ஆரியக் கூத்து)</i></span></span> stands for the narratives from Ramayana and Mahabharata. <i style="line-height: 18.4px;">Tamil koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தமிழ்க் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> stands for Tamil folklore narratives like Sudalai Madan.</span></div>
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<i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Desi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தேசிக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> include three variants; 1. <i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Desi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தேசிக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i>, 2. Vadaku koothu and <i>Singhalam koothu (சிங்களக் கூத்து)</i>. <i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Desi koothu (</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தேசிக் கூத்து</i></span></span><i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">)</i> involves the dance of Tamil country, <i>Vadaku koothu (வடக்குக் கூத்து)</i>, is also known as Marka koothu (மார்க்க<i style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">க்</i> கூத்து), and is well known as the dance of the Telugu country, whilst Singhala was regarded as the dance of the Singhala country.</div>
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<i>Venri koothu (வென்றிக் கூத்து)</i> deals with the celebrations of victory over the enemy king. <i>Sakkai koothu (சாக்கைக் கூத்து)</i>, another ancient form of koothu comprise <i>Pirapantha koothu (பிரபந்தக் கூத்து)</i>, <i>Nankiyar koothu (நங்கியர் கூத்து)</i>, and <i>Koodi Attam</i> (கூடி ஆட்டம்). Sakkai Koothu and Koodi Attam are being performed in Kerala Another category of eleven dances by deities called 'Diva Viruthy' was mentioned in Sillapapdikaram.<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><span style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;"><b>“Arangetrukaadai” or “the debut on-stage performance”</b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">In the third chapter, <i>“Arangetrukaadai”</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;"><i> (அரங்கேற்று காதை)</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> or “the debut on-stage performance”, Madhavi got ready for her maiden dance performance before the court of the Chola king Karikalan at Poompukar, the Chola capital. The chapter narrates in great details the debut performance and the entire text has extensive references to technical terms connected to dance and music. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Danseuse <i>Madhavi (</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px; text-align: center;"><i>மாதவி</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> was the daughter of <i>Chitrapathy (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>சித்ரபதி)</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> and she hailed from Kanigaiyar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கணிகையர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">) tradition (a Devadasi family). Arangetrukaadai traces how by the curse of sage <i>Agathiya (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>அகத்தியர்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i>, <i>Urvasi (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>ஊர்வசி</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> (celestial dancer) and <i>Jayanthan (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>ஜயந்தன்</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> (son of Lord Indra) were born as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>Madhavi (</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px; text-align: center;"><i>மாதவி</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">, the dance heroine, and <i>Thalaikol (</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><i>தலைக்கோல் </i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><i>)</i> respectively. She is celebrated in the line of descent of Urvasi and is called Vanavamakal (divine woman). She learned dance from the age of five and mastered the classical dance at the age of twelve. Madhavi’s debut dance (arangetram) took place at Poompukar, the capital of the Chola Kingdom, in the presence of the Chola King, the learned assembly and the citizens. After the rigorous full time training for seven years under the able guidance of the dance master (ஆடல் ஆசான்) she was fit enough to exhibit her dance before the Chola king. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பிறப்பிற் குன்றாப் பெருந்தோள் மடந்தை</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தாதுஅவிழ் புரிகுழல் மாதவி தன்னை</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஆடலும் பாடலும் அழகும் என்றுஇக்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கூறிய மூன்றின் ஒன்றுகுறை படாமல்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஏழாண்டு இயற்றிஓர் ஈராறு ஆண்டில் 10</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சூழ்கடல் மன்னற்குக் காட்டல் வேண்டி (Silappadikaram, Aragetru Kadhai (6-11)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">Madhavi's dance master <span style="font-size: small; line-height: 18.4px;">should know the nuances of the two 'koothus' i.e., Aka-koothu (Vettiyal koothu) and Pura-koothu (Pothuviyal koothu)</span>, The master should harmonize various kinds of dance forms with proper songs. He must be proficient in the eleven modes of dance as well as music and percussion instruments as prescribed in the relevant prescript. The master should aware the appropriate occasion to apply the hand gestures such as <i>1. pindi (</i></span><i><span style="text-align: center;">பிண்டி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">), 2. pinayal (</span><span style="text-align: center;">பிணைய</span><span style="text-align: center;">ல்)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">, 3. ezhirkai (</span><span style="text-align: center;">எழிற்கை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">) and 4. thozhirkai (</span><span style="text-align: center;">தொழிற்கை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">).</span></i><br />
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<span style="text-align: center;"> ஆடலும் பாடலும் பாணியும் தூக்கும் </span></div>
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கூடிய நெறியின கொளுத்துங் காலைப் </div>
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பிண்டியும் பிணையலும் எழிற்கையும் தொழிற்கையும் </div>
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கொண்ட வகைஅறிந்து கூத்துவரு காலைக் </div>
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கூடை செய்தகை வாரத்துக் களைதலும்</div>
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வாரம் செய்தகை கூடையிற் களைதலும் </div>
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பிண்டி செய்தகை ஆடலிற் களைதலும் </div>
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ஆடல் செய்தகை பிண்டியிற் களைதலும் </div>
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குரவையும் வரியும் விரவல செலுத்தி </div>
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ஆடற்கு அமைந்த ஆசான் <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> (Silappadikaram, Aragetru Kadhai (16-25)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The <i>music teacher (இசை ஆசிரியர்)</i> of Madhavi should be skilled enough in playing on the yazh (lute) and flute in accordance with the rhythm and vocal music. He should also be skilled in playing low sounding tabor and in harmonizing the songs with the musical instruments. The music teacher should be knowledgeable in </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">the pronunciation of the words of the languages. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">The composer of the song should be conversant in Tamil language and be familiar with the rules of grammar of the two categories of dance: </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">Vettiyal and pothuviyal </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The <i>percussion instrumentalist (drummer) (தண்ணுமை இசைக் கலைஞர்)</i> should be proficient and knowledgeable in the dance forms, lyrical compositions, music, Tamil literature. He should play on the instrument in such a way to keep the tempo doubled with the rhythm kept intact. The drummer should play the instrument to perfectly to harmonize with the yazh (lute) and flute sounds as well as the vocalist's voice. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">The flute player should be conversant with the prescribed rules of the flute-music. The <i>flutist (குழல் இசைக் கலைஞர்)</i> should be proficient in the two kinds of manipulations i.e., chittiram and vanjanai by which the harsh sounds of the song are made pleasing to the ear. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">The <i>yazh player (யாழ் இசைக் கலைஞர்)</i> should be skilled in playing yazh with fourteen strings, arrange in the right order which could produce the palai scales. Silappadikaram mentions about four different kinds of yazhs (lute): </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">1. mulari yazh 2 sruthi veenai 3 Parijatha veenai 4 Chathurthandi veenai.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The site for the construction of the dance stage chosen in conformity with the authoritative rules and directions. They have employed the measuring rod measuring about twenty four thumb breadth long. The measuring rod was cut out of a tall bamboo with a span long between two joints. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The stage was eight rods in length, seven rods in breadth and one rod in height. The plank placed above the pillars was four rods above the platform. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The stage was provided with two appropriate doors. Above the stage were placed the pictures of the demons worthy of worship. The graceful lighting up the stage was so located that the shadow cast by the pillars did not darken the auditorium. The stage was fitted with single-side screen, a double-side screen, and a concealed, over-hanging screen. It had a finely-painted ceiling, and the garlands of pearls hung all over.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">நூல்நெறி மரபின் அரங்கம் அளக்கும் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கோல்அளவு இருபத்து நால்விரல் ஆக<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>100</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">எழுகோல் அகலத்து எண்கோல் நீளத்து </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஒருகோல் உயரத்து உறுப்பினது ஆகி </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">உத்தரப் பலகையொடு அரங்கின் பலகை </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வைத்த இடைநிலம் நாற்கோல் ஆக </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஏற்ற வாயில் இரண்டுடன் பொலியத்<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>105</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தோற்றிய அரங்கில் தொழுதனர் ஏத்தப் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பூதரை எழுதி மேல்நிலை வைத்துத் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தூண்நிழல் புறப்பட மாண்விளக்கு எடுத்துஆங்கு </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஒருமுக எழினியும் பொருமுக எழினியும் </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கரந்துவரல் எழினியும் புரிந்துடன் வகுத்து</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">ஓவிய விதானத்து உரைபெறு நித்திலத்து </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மாலைத் தாமம் வளையுடன் நாற்றி </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">விருந்துபடக் கிடந்த அருந்தொழில் அரங்கத்து</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(Silappadikaram, Aragetru Kadhai (99-113)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">Talaikkol, the sacred rod made of bamboo, would be </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">wielded by the dance-master to regulate the dance</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">. The shaft represents Jayanta, Indra’s son who according to legend, was cursed by Sage Agastya to be born as a bamboo stick. Talaikkol was invariably the shaft of the umbrella of the enemy king and was seized in war.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">காவல்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">வெண்குடை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">மன்னவன்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">கோயில்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">வந்தனை</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">செய்து</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">வழிபடு</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">தலைக்கோல்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">(Silappadikaram, Aragetru Kadhai(118-</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">120)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small; line-height: 18.4px;">Its joints were set with nine gems and the intervening spaces were covered with plates of pure gold. </span>The poet provides finer details about the ceremony of Talaikkol. On an auspicious day the Talaikkol was washed with the sacred waters of Cauvery brought in golden pitcher and then garlanded and worshiped. Later it was placed </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">in the trunk of the royal elephant adorned with gold plated bands. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">The drums and other musical instruments would be beaten to proclaim the kings victory. T</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">he king along with his live fold retinue and the royal elephant, circumambulated the chariot on which the poet was seated and handed over the talaikkol to him. Then they all went in a procession to the dance hall and placed the talakkol on the dance stage.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">From that </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> time on the instrumentalists took their seats as per the laid down order, Madhavi ascended the stage, placing her right foot first and stood near the pillar to the right in confirmation with the norms. The elder dancers assembled by the side of the pillar on the left. The two conventional prayer songs were sung praying for maximizing the virtue and the cease of the vice. At the conclusion of the prayer all the instruments were sounded. The yazh (lute) harmonized with the flute; the tabor sounded in harmony with the yazh; the pot drum was in harmony with the tabor and the anantirikai harmonized with the pot-drum.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">A 'mandilam' comprise two strokes and Madhavi danced eleven mandilams without deviating from dancing conventions and thus completed antarakkottu. She then danced the melodic improvisation of the auspicious palai tune without deviating its rigid measure. Demonstrating the four parts of the song, she commenced with three mandilams and concluded with one mandilam; in this way she danced the 'desi-dance' In the same manner she also danced the vaduhu dance, commencing with three mandilams and concluding with one mandilam. In her dance she conscientiously followed the prescription of the dance-scriptures. It looked as if a golden creeper full of flowers was dancing.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The king presented her with his leaf garland, conferring on her the title Talaikkoli in recognition of her skill. He also presented her one thousand and eight gold coins as her one day's fee, according to the prescribed convention. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">The dancer is now qualified to be called as a ‘professional dancer’ or ‘Natakaganikai’</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;"><b>Reference</b></span></span><br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre by M.L. Varadpande. Abhinav Publications, 1981. 157 pages</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ancient rock paintings discovered at Tirumayam Fort by M. Balaganessin. The Hindu November 23, 2013</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Dance: The Living spirit of Indian Arts. Exotic India. April 2006</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">How the Tamil epic extols music and dance. The Hindu March 02, 2001</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ilango Adigal Silappadikaram. Translated by S.Krishnamoorthy. Bharathi Puthakalayam, 2011. 176 p.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Isai Tamil inscription in ruins The Hindu March 22, 2012</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Jain Cave Temple at Sittanavasal. HereNow4U.30 July 2015</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Kannaki - Epitome of Chastity. Hub Pages. December 26, 2014</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Koothus in Silapathikaram. Daily News 31 December 2003 (http://archives.dailynews.lk/2003/12/31/artscop14.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Kudumiyanmalai – Inscriptions Tamilnadu Tourism. December 13, 2015</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Matavi’s 11 types of Classical Dance. Tamil and Vedas</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Natya, Nritya and Nritta. Nadanam. http://www.nadanam.com/g_3n.htm</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Project Madurai Silappadikaram Pukar Kandam (http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0046.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Quotations from Tamil Epic Silappadikaram (https://tamilandvedas.com/tag/silappadikaram/)Rural murals throw light on life in old Pudukottai. Deccan Chronicle. Dec 23, 2016. (http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131123/news-current-affairs/article/rural-murals-throw-light-life-old-pudukottai)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Silapathikaram the great tamil epic in short (The Anklet and the Leaves of the Epic). Innland Theatre. February 24, 2011. (http://innlandtheatrechennai.blogspot.in/2011/02/silapathikaram-great-tamil-epic-in.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Tamilnadu's Contribution to Carnatic Music: A Bird's Eye-view by Sundaram, BM (http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/tnmusic1.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Thamizh Literature Through the Ages தமிழ் இலக்கியம் - தொன்று தொட்டு இன்று வரை by Krishnamurti, CR. (http://tamilnation.co/literature/krishnamurti/12present.htm)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">தமிழ் நாடக வரலாறு விக்கிப்பீடியா </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">தமிழர் நாடகக் கலை - விக்கிப்பீடியா</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">வரலாற்றில் பரதநாட்டியம். இரா.நாகசாமி (http://tamilartsacademy.com/bharata%20natyam.xml)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">நாடக இலக்கியம் (http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/p203/p2031/html/p2031112.htm)</span></li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com5Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-26835886860736348132016-12-29T07:08:00.001-08:002016-12-29T07:08:36.167-08:00Dance and Drama of Ancient Tamils: Part 1 Koothu, Chadir Attam and Bharatanatyam <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="dance_sm.jpg (350×215)" src="http://www.exoticindiaart.com/artimages/dance_sm.jpg" height="245" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Carvings on Temple Wall PC Exotic India Art</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Dance was the resplendent art form in ancient Tamil Country. Dancing played an indispensable role in the lives of the ancient Tamil Sangam society. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">In ancient times the dance was known as Koothu (கூத்து). Later the dancing transformed into </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">“Chadir attam” (சதிர் ஆட்டம்) which means “court dance” and was danced in the temples of South India by the Devadasis (தேவதாசி). Bharatanatyam (பரதநாட்டியம்), the classical dance form of Tamil Nadu, derived from its older form i.e., Chadir attam. Bharatanatyam is primarily concerned with the grammar of Natyashastra (நாட்டியசாஸ்திரா), an ancient treatise on dance and drama compiled by sage Bharata Muni (பரத முனி). </span><br />
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The corpus of literature written during Tamil Sangam period spanning from 300 BC to 300 AD was known as Sangam literature. Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age. Scores of musical instruments are cited and scores of ornaments are also mentioned in the Sangam literature.</div>
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dance in Rock Paintings</b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="13.jpg (1600×1062)" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIJSSS9Z5r6Y3Peiq5C5D4MpR-DPe9cs1QZ0XxXFo4jhv0vEi20MVrHofmwXLjC1dWnVrULxO5_RtmZ1KIGkTfTUAR4ZJz382Hl-GjoIb8zBcA76Qc7wa9dbO3xOwlYjeOMLwgombi8Fkj/s400/13.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Tirumayam Rock Paintings- PC Dr.N.Arul Murugan</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Tirumayam Rock Paintings </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">'MEYYURU PUNARCHI'</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;"> - PC Dr.N.Arul Murugan</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="8.jpg (1600×1062)" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhudg6A8aSeq4EKj1lWQApcgcHK3sVcX0UlYwc5RykOCghFPXPpoOA3slpTNHXENZmrE2fzyDxXo8JhmGskQRUudjlCeKwJ5DilbepM93vf55vlC09Px502YS0YrAPhjAG3jbH9l1xuAMg2/s400/8.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Tirumayam Rock Paintings UNDATTU - PC Dr.N.Arul Murugan</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="sittanavasal_13.jpg (628×340)" src="http://www.herenow4u.net/fileadmin/v3media/pics/Jain_Temples/sittanavasal_13.jpg" height="216" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
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<em>Female dancer with hand thrown up in glee, Pandya, 9th century CE) </em><em style="background-color: transparent; font-size: 12.8px;">PC HereNow4U</em></div>
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<em>Female dancer with the head and hands preserved (wall painting, Pandya, 9th century CE)</em></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The oldest proof of existence of dancing comes from the 5000 year old rare rock murals that were discovered in Tirumayam fort, Tamil Nadu. Till recently nothing was known about the rock murals. However an exploration made by N. Arul Murugan, Chief Educational Officer, has exposed the hidden treasure. </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The rock murals, detected at three different sites atop the fort, appear to be the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The paintings have been done on a rock surface. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The rock murals could be older than the murals of Sithannavasal i.e., Pandyan era.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">One of the mural portray a man and a woman </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">lying down in reclining posture.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">with their hands united. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Some other mural art presents a dance program wherein a couple is engaged in playing percussion instruments and the row of men and women appear dancing on top. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The history of art in ancient Tamil Nadu begins with prehistoric rock paintings. Scholars assign the date of the ancient rock murals around 5000 BC This kind of dance was mentioned in Tolkappiyam, ancient Tamil grammar work, as ‘Undattu’ (a dance).</span><br />
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<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Koothu (</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #252525; font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">கூத்து</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">Koothu </span><span style="background: white; color: #252525; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">(Tamil: கூத்து)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">is the most ancient form of dance in Tamil land and is considered as the historical predecessor of the Bharatanatyam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">பரதநாட்டியம்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.4px;">). </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tolkappiyam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தொல்காப்பியம்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">by Tolkappiyar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">தொல்காப்பியர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">),</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a book on phonology, grammar and poetics, <span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">assignable to the first century (pre-dates Bharata muni's Natyashastra, a grammar treatise on dance) provides information
about the dance of ancient Tamils. </span></span></span><br />
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"நாடக வழக்கினும் உலகியல் வழக்கினும் பாடல் சான்ற புலனெறி வழக்கம்" (தொல்காப்பியம். பொருளதி.53)</div>
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It refers to several kinds of women dancers i.e., Viraliyar (விறலியர்) (ministrels), Koothiyar (கூத்தியர்) (dancing girls), Paratthaiyar (பரத்தையர்) (courtesans), Kannular (கண்ணுளர்) (santhi-koothu) as well as men dancers i.e., Koothar (கூத்தர்) (dancing men), Panar (பாணர்) minstrels), Porunar (பொருநர்) (war bards). Perumpanarruppadai cites about the dance stage:</div>
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"நாடக மகளிராடுகளத் தெடுத்த</div>
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வீசிவீங் கின்னியங் கடுப்ப" - (பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை) </div>
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Pattinappalai also cites about drama:</div>
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<span style="color: #363635;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">"பாடலோர்ந்தும் நாடகம் நயந்தும்" - (பட்டினப்பாலை) </span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #363635;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">Koothu is mentioned in Sangam poems like Kuruntokai (குறுந்தொகை) and Kalitogai (கலித்தொகை). Koothu was performed in honor of the young soldier who had fought valiant and returned victorious. A form of koothu was performed as a ritual to aggrieve the valiant death of the chief.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Koothu and Sangam Literature</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Koothu
was also performed for the Tamil god Murugan (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">முருகன்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) and his tribal consort Valli (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வள்ளி</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">). This kind
of koothu was performed with religious ecstasy. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">In
ancient Sangam literature, the dance of Vettuvavari (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வேட்டுவவரி</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) or Veriyattam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வெறியாட்டம்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">), a kind of
koothu performed by women in a state of possession, has earned great reputation
in connection with Murugan cult of Tamil Kurinji land. The koothu ritual
accompanies the offering of food and drink (as well as animal sacrifice) before
the Tamil god Murugan or Korravai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">கொற்றவை</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">). The dancers were priestess from Marava
tribe.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Sangam poems such as Kuruntokai (குறுந்தொகை), Akananuru (அகநானூறு), Paripatal (பரிபாடல்) and Narrinai (நற்றிணை) as well as Tirumurukarruppadai (திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை) have explanations and references about Vettuvavari or Veriyattam. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வெறியாட் டயர்ந்த காந்தளும்’’(தொல்.புறத்.நூற்பா, 63)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">‘‘வேலன் புனைந்த வெறியயர் களந்தொறும்</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">செந்நெல் வான்பொரி சிதறி யன்ன’’( குறுந்., பா.எ.78)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வேலன் வெறி அயர்களத்து (அகம் : 114 : 2)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வேல னேத்தும் வெறியு முளவே (பரிபாடல் 15)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">முருகு புணர்ந்து இயன்ற வள்ளி போல் - (நற்றிணை பாடல 83)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Silappadikaram details ‘Kuravaikoothu,’ (குரவைக்கூத்து) (invokes the blessings of Lord Murugan by singing Kurinji-pann – ancient form of Tamil Raga), ‘Aaichiyar Kuravai’ (ஆய்சசியர் குரவை) (invokes the blessings of Lord Vishnu by singing Mullai-pann – ancient form of Tamil Raga) and ‘Kunrakuravai’ (குன்றக்குரவை) (in praise of Kannagi) have very rich information about ancient dance forms. Thunangai Koothu (துணங்கைக் கூத்து) was focused on the martial arts and war.</span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; line-height: 18.2px; text-align: left;"><b>Ancient Tamil Music</b></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ancient Musical Instruments PC </td></tr>
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Tolkappiyam speaks of music and musical instruments at numerous places. Purananuru (புறநானூறு) lists out the music instruments used by Sangam society i.e., percussion instruments Muzhavu (முழவு), Murasu (முரசு), Thannumai (தண்ணுமை),parai (பறை); stringed instruments like yazh (யாழ்) lute, Thoombu (தூம்பு), Ellari (எல்லரி), Akuli (ஆகுளி), Kulir (குளிர்) and wind instrument Conch (சங்கு). </div>
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மண்முழா அமைமின் பண்யாழ் நிறுமின்</div>
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கண்விடு தூம்பின் களிற்றுஉயிர் தொடுமின்</div>
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எல்லரி தொடுமின் ஆகுளி தொடுமின்</div>
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பதலை ஒருகண் பையென இயக்குமின்” (புறம் 152 14-17)</div>
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Yazh was used as the primary instrument and accompanies with vocal music. Sangam poem Kalladam (கல்லாடம்) the 9th century poetical work by Kalladanar (கல்லாடனார்), refer various kinds of yazh (யாழ்) (lute): 1. Vil-yazh (வில்யாழ்) bow shaped instrument with 21 strings; Peri-yazh (பேரியாழ்) with 21 strings; Makara-yazh (மகரயாழ்) Capricorn shaped. between 17 - 19 strings; Cakota-yazh (சகோடயாழ்) with 16 strings; Kichaka-yazh (கீசக யாழ்) with 14 strings; Cenkotti-yazh (செங்கோட்டியாழ்) with 7 strings; and Chiri-yazh (சீறியாழ்) with 7 strings. The instrument lost its popularity when the Veena instrument emerged. Pann (பண்) (pentatonic scales associated with the five Tamil landscapes which could be viewed on par with present day raga.. example: Kurinji pann, Maruda pann, Palai pann, Vilari pann etc.) and palai (பாலை) (parental scale (தாய்ப்பண்கள்) - associated with the Melakartha). Ancient Tamils have defined the seven notes as Kural (குரல்), Tuttam (துத்தம்), Kaikkilai (கைக்கிளை), Uzhai (உழை), Ili (இளி), Vilari (விளரி) and Taaram (தாரம்). </div>
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'குரலே துத்தம் கைக்கிளை உழையே</div>
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இளியே விளரி தாரம் என்றிவை எழுவகை யிசைக்கும் எய்தும் பெயரே'</div>
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The string instrument Yazh was employed to define and categorize pann. Tolkappiyar employed the percussion instrument 'parai' (பறை) to define rhythm (தாளம்)..</div>
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<span style="color: #252525; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 22.4px;"><b>Ancient Treatises on Tamil Music and Dance</b></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Starting from Agattiyam (அகத்தியம்) and Tolkappiyam, many texts like Indra Kaleeyam (இந்திரகாளியம்) of Yamalendra, Isai Nunakkam (இசை நுணுக்கம்) of Sikhandi, Pancha Marabu (பஞ்சமரபு) of Arivanar, Bharata Senapatiyam (பரதசேனாபதியம்) of Adivayilar, Kootta Nool (கூத்தநூல்) of Sathanar and Muruval (முறுவல்), Sayandam (சயந்தம்), Guna Nool (குணநூல்), Seyirriyam (செயிற்றியம்) -- whose authors not known-- have defined the grammar of classical dance and music. Kootha Nool, compiled by Sathanar, is an ancient treatise on dramaturgy which has nine chapters devoting to two different subjects ‘Suvai’ (சுவை ) and ‘Thogai.’ (தொகை). It focuses on tripartite arts of dance, music and drama. Scholars believe that this work formed the basis for Bharata’s Natyashastra. Pancha Marabu, a treatise on musical theory belonged to the third Sangam period. It lists out nine different divisions of Tamil music and deals with musical instruments including percussion instruments (Muzhavu). It also provides notes on hand gestures, abinayam, koothu, natyam etc., and prescribes the Jati syllables. Adiyarkku Nallar (அடியார்க்கு நல்லார்) in his commentary on Silappadikaram cites about Kootha Nool and Pancha Marapu.</span><br />
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<b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">Bharatanatyam: </span><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Natyashastra of </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;">sage Bharatha Muni and Other Treatises</span></b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Bharatanatyam Darasuram. PC Ipseand ~ Welcome to My Playground!</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">‘Natyashastra’ (நாட்டியசாஸ்த்திரா) by the sage Bharatha Muni (பரதமுனி) sets the grammar for dance. Therefore it was being aptly termed as Bharatanatyam during 1940s. Earlier it was known as Chatir-attam. The date of Natyashastra and Bharatanatyam is not yet resolved. However scholars assign the date of Bharata Muni to Sangam period. Abhinav Bharati (10th century AD) of Abhinavgupta, commentary on Natya Shastra also known as Natya-Vedam, clearly brings out the basic concepts of the Natyashastra. Sangita Ratnakara (13th century AD) of Sharangadeva focuses on the Natyashastra traditions including its desi variations. Nandikeshvara’s Abhinaya Dharpanam is an all-inclusive work universally adopted by most contemporary dancers and dance-masters.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">According to the Sangita Ratnakara, the Abhinaya Darpanam and other medieval treatises, the dance is divided into three distinct categories, i.e., Nrittam (pure dance), Nrityam (solo expressive dance) and Natyam (group dramatic dance).</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">108 Dance Postures. Chidambaram Temple</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> PC Ipseand ~ Welcome to My Playground!</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Nrittam corresponds to pure dance steps performed rhythmically. It is the illustration of rhythm through graceful body movements. Here the movements of the body do not convey any mood or meaning and its purpose is the acute synchronization between rhythm and time, with dance movements. Nrityam corresponds to the mime performed to the poetic song. The dancer justifies the meaning of the song, through various bodily movements such as, facial expressions, hand and legs movements and abstract dance or Nrittam. Shuddha Nrittam was called Chokkam (சொக்கம்) in Tamil and all the 108 Karanas (கரணங்கள்) were performed in it. Chadir was the solo dance form performed for centuries by Devadasis in temples. Natyam corresponds to drama. Natyam means dramatic representation or drama with Speech, Music, Nrittam and Nrityam. Nrittam was given great importance in Tamil Natya. Kuravanji was the group dance by women, interpreting literary or poetic compositions typically on the theme of fulfillment of the love of a girl for her beloved. Bhagavata Melam was the group form of dance drama from Tamil Nadu, with all roles performed by men, and themes based on mythology.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18.4px;"><b>Inscriptions on Temple Dance Tradition</b> </span><br />
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<li><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Chola Fresco of dancing girls. Brihadisvara Temple</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Few inscriptions exist in evidence to show that dance played an important part jn the life of ancient Tamils. The ancient Isai Tamil inscription dating back to the second century BC was discovered in a cave on the western end of the hillock in Arachalur, Erode district. It is in Tamil Brahmi script. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The inscriptions is related to Tala notes (Adavu) meant for a Bharatanatyam dancer. The tala notes is composed with five lines and as many rows, resembling a five-row - five-column matrix. The tala matrix has been arranged to enable the reader to read either from left to right or top to bottom it reads the same. It is a palindrome as well. </span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arachalur Tamil Brahmi Inscription Tala Notes (Adavu) - Bharatanatyam</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Kudumiyanmalai music inscription is in Pallava Grantha script and the script resembles more or less with that of Pallava king Mahendra-varman (மகேந்திரவர்மன்). It is considered as important in the history of Indian music. This inscription is now extant between Bharata Muni's Natyashastra and Sarangadeva's Sangita Ratnakara. Yet another Pallava Grantha inscription in Kudumiyanmalai cave temple read as ‘Parivadinidaa’ (பரிவாதினிதா). Parivadini is by and large regarded as a seven stringed yazh instrument like harp type Vina (வீணை). The phrase </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">‘Parivadinidaa’ also forms part in few other rock cut cave inscriptions such as </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Tirumayam (திருமயம்) and Malaiyakkoil (மலையக்கோயில்).- both the</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> rock cut caves are located - in Pudukkottai district.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">The inscription of Rajaraja Chola I dated 1004 AD on the outside of the north enclosure of Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur (S.I.I Vol.2, Part 3 No. 65, 66) </span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">records the magnitude of Devadasi system. The inscription also makes reference about 400 dancing girls </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">.imported </span></span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">from various Shiva and some Vaishnava temples in Chola territory </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">and settled in the neighborhood of the </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Brihadisvara</span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;"> temple. </span><span style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; line-height: 18.4px;">The inscription also informs about the host of temple staff including dance-masters, musicians, drummers, singers etc., </span><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur also hosts a circular platform known as 'Kuravanji Medai' for dancers to perform. The Devadasi dancers have performed the Rajaraja Natakam, depicting the history of temple construction.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Few medieval
inscriptions cite to the tradition of staging koothus in temple dancing
halls. An inscription of Rajendra Chola (ARE
1914 No. 65) records the gift of land by the general assembly of Kamaravalli
Chaturvedimangalam (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">காமரவல்லி சதுர்வேதிமங்கலம்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) to Sakkai Marayan of Vikramasolan for performing Sakkai
Koothu (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சாக்கைக் கூத்து</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) thrice on each of the festivals Margali Tiruvadirai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">மார்கழி திருவாதிரை</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) and Vaikasi
Tiruvadirai (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">வைகாசி திருவாதிரை</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">). Yet another inscription (ARE 1914 No. 254) registers the grants
made to a shrine of Sadiruvidanga nayakar (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சதிருவிடங்க நாயகர்</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) set up by Kulottungasola Kidarattaraiyan
for performing Sandi-koothu (</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">சந்திக் கூத்து</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">) during the Tiruvadirai festival that falls in the
month of Vaikasi. Another inscription (ARE 1921 No.42) in Kanchipuram registers
about the performance of koothu by the troupe artists at Kanchipuram and other
places. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The koothu tradition flourished
under the patronage of temple institution since the time of Silappadikaram. </span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="green1800.jpg (768×602)" height="313" src="https://sangeethas.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/green1800.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #ededc2; font-family: "helvetica neue" , "helvetica" , "arial" , sans-serif; line-height: 23.625px;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><b>Dancing girls and musicians from Madras, a drawing by Christopher Green, c.1800</b></span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Later dance in the temple as a ritual was performed by the specially trained
‘Devadasis’ or the “Servants of god.’ Devadasis were young girls who were
dedicated to the temple and were married to the god in a ritual. Devadasis attached to Shiva temple were known as 'Rishabathaliyalar' and those attached to Vishnu temple were named as 'Sri Vaishnava-manickam'. They were not
allowed a regular family life but were highly trained in dance and music.
Temple gave them housing, land and regular income.</span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reference</b></div>
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<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ancient Indian And Indo-Greek Theatre by M.L. Varadpande. Abhinav Publications, 1981. 157 pages</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ancient rock paintings discovered at Tirumayam Fort by M. Balaganessin. The Hindu November 23, 2013</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Dance: The Living spirit of Indian Arts. Exotic India. April 2006</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">How the Tamil epic extols music and dance. The Hindu March 02, 2001</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Ilango Adigal Silappadikaram. Translated by S.Krishnamoorthy. Bharathi Puthakalayam, 2011. 176 p.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: times new roman, serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Isai Tamil inscription in ruins The Hindu March 22, 2012</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Jain Cave Temple at Sittanavasal. HereNow4U.30 July 2015</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Kannaki - Epitome of Chastity. Hub Pages. December 26, 2014</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Koothus in Silapathikaram. Daily News </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">31 December
2003 (<a href="http://archives.dailynews.lk/2003/12/31/artscop14.html">http://archives.dailynews.lk/2003/12/31/artscop14.html</a>)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kudumiyanmalai – Inscriptions Tamilnadu Tourism. December 13, 2015</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Matavi’s 11 types of Classical Dance. Tamil and Vedas</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Natya, Nritya and Nritta. Nadanam. http://www.nadanam.com/g_3n.htm</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">Quotations from Tamil Epic Silappadikaram (https://tamilandvedas.com/tag/silappadikaram/)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rural murals throw light on life in old Pudukottai.
Deccan Chronicle. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dec 23, 2016. (http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131123/news-current-affairs/article/rural-murals-throw-light-life-old-pudukottai)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 18.4px;">Silapathikaram the great tamil epic in short (The Anklet and the Leaves of the Epic). Innland Theatre. February 24, 2011. (</span></span><span style="line-height: 18.4px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">http://innlandtheatrechennai.blogspot.in/2011/02/silapathikaram-great-tamil-epic-in.html)</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px; text-align: left;">Tamilnadu's Contribution to Carnatic Music: A Bird's Eye-view by Sundaram, BM (http://tamilelibrary.org/teli/tnmusic1.html)</span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: #ffffee;">Thamizh Literature Through the Ages </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தமிழ்</span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">இலக்கியம்</span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;"> - </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தொன்று</span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">தொட்டு</span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">இன்று</span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif;">வரை by </span><span style="background-color: #ffffee;">Krishnamurti,
CR. (</span><a href="http://tamilnation.co/literature/krishnamurti/12present.htm">http://tamilnation.co/literature/krishnamurti/12present.htm</a><span style="background-color: #ffffee;">)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">தமிழ் நாடக வரலாறு விக்கிப்பீடியா </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">தமிழர் நாடகக் கலை - விக்கிப்பீடியா</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">வரலாற்றில்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">பரதநாட்டியம்</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">. </span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">இரா</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: "nirmala ui" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;">நாகசாமி</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 17.3pt;"> (http://tamilartsacademy.com/bharata%20natyam.xml)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; line-height: 18.4px;">நாடக இலக்கியம் (http://www.tamilvu.org/courses/degree/p203/p2031/html/p2031112.htm)</span></li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India13.0826802 80.27071840000007812.5876862 79.625271400000074 13.5776742 80.916165400000082tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-89360187948159727642016-11-28T07:02:00.001-08:002016-11-28T07:02:23.538-08:00Kesavaram Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar Temple: Structural Stone Temple near Cooum Village, Vellore district, Tamil Nadu.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<img alt="IMG_2240.JPG (634×438)" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLhfP7Dez6KPBPjORYZri0nFFHlobcCkYhe6sInmGKBIgKFLC-1uvQT49N2ebexQYyoCFQdITbWlaS8x2-P7efUM0Dhc_CeyROX8KLEQ3ERBAAw2k5zMysFyl8sRpfD3yRTUiW4meRuVc/s400/IMG_2240.JPG" width="400" /></div>
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<img alt="Kesavaram_KailayaEswaramudaiyaMahadevTemple+%2825%29.JPG (1600×1600)" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnLx9Ml-Eu4vFJ12v0WdaPM-U_25_9MX2sh1DfYJP9hHgavdeRj6b0gBo9d-teRGiqJvtNR_U_11sK2WOgnPFtfWnIM0nG1QIYZ-ObGDmpZGkfHmoHg8exa7uuXqWuJ48lj7CDomrvJQvV/s400/Kesavaram_KailayaEswaramudaiyaMahadevTemple+%252825%2529.JPG" width="400" /></div>
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Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar Temple (கைலாய ஈஸ்வரமுடைய மஹாதேவர் கோவில் கேசவரம்) is located in Kesavaram (கேசவரம்) village, Arakkonam taluk, Vellore district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 631151. and Kesavaram (கேசவரம்) village forms part of Pudukesavaram Panchayat. Kesavaram is the transitioned form of Kailaya Eswaram (கைலாய ஈஸ்வரம்).<br />
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The 136 km long Kosasthalaiyar River (கொசஸ்தலையார் ஆறு), also known as Kortalaiyar River (கொற்றலையார் ஆறு), originates near Kaveripakkam in Vellore District. At Kesavaram dam (கேசவரம் அணைக்கட்டு), the river splits into two i.e., Kosasthalaiyar (கொசஸ்தலையார் ஆறு) and Cooum rivers (கூவம் ஆறு). Cooum river receives the surplus water from Cooum tank (கூவம் ஏரி), in Cooum village. Kesavaram dam is located 72 km from Chennai. An island was formed by the confluence of two rivers - Kosasthalayar and Kallaru by encircling and forming the village Kesavaram. Kosasthalayar, believed as Moksha Nadhi, flows from south to north (Uttaravauhini உத்தரவாஹினி) and continue to flow towards Poondi reservoir From Poondi reservoir, Kosasthalaiyar flows through Thiruvallur district, passes through the Chennai metropolitan area, and enters into Bay of Bengal at Ennore creek. At Kesavaram the river bed is dry and surrounded by palm trees. No proper road to reach the temple and you have to walk on the dam bund and even traverse through paddy fields to reach the temple.<br />
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Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar Temple, a structural stone temple built by Kulottunga Chola I (முதலாம் குலோத்துங்க சோழன்) (1070 – 1122 A.D.), is located about one km away from the Kesavaram dam bund. The east facing temple is in a dilapidated condition and some volunteers have conserved the temple from further damage.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The temple has the sanctum, ardha-mandapam and mukha-mandapam. </span>The gajaprishta vimana is entirely built with granite boulders. It has an ekatala vimana and it has an apsidal (Gajapriishta) plan from adhishtana to shikara, recalling the earlier Buddhist chaitya. The apsidal vimana sits on an apsidal adishtana (plinth). The simple pada-bandha adhishtana (பாதபந்த அதிஷ்டானா) with upa-peeta (உப பீடம்), jagadi (ஜகதி), tripatta kumuda (முப்பட்டைக் குமுதம்), khanta (கண்டம்) with pada and flanked by kampa (கம்பு) and pattika (பட்டிகை) mouldings. </div>
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The pada (walls) of the vimana and ardha-mandapam have simple punctuated by brahmakanta pilasters. The walls of the adi-tala of the vimana are divided into three segments called the pathis or bhadras. Devakoshtas flanked by brahmakanta pilasters are sculpted in the central sala bhadras or sala pathis. The upper end of the pilasters are ornamented with kalasa, tadi, kudam, pali, palakha and virakanda. Dakshinamurti in the niche or devakoshtha on the south side of the vimana; Lingodbhava in the niche on the west side; and the north side of the niche houses the priest god Brahma. Sthanaka Vinayaka in the niche or devakoshta located on the south side of the ardha-mandapam; and the north side of the niche houses the goddess Durga. The lintel portions of the koshtas are bereft of any toranas Pilasters support uttara and above uttara is the prastara components including vajana, valabhi and kapota ornamented with kudu at regular intervals. Above the kapota is the bhumidesa denoting the end of the tala. Bhumidesa has the frieze of yali heads.<br />
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The super structure of the vimana is built with granite boulders. The apsidal griva (neck) rises above bhumidesa. The griva koshtas or niches are sculpted on three sides. Dakshinamurti in the south griva koshta; Narasimha in the west koshta and Brahma in the north koshta. On top of this griva is an apsidal shikara. Above griva koshtas, maha-nasikas (horseshoe shaped arches) are sculpted on the surfaces of shikara on all cardinal directions. The kudus of maha-nasikas are decorated with Nataraja in the south, Yoga Narasimha in the west and Brahma in the north. <br />
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<img alt="IMG_2246.JPG (600×800)" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD6p3kMvRl6XNiAnONXM5FazGlt22NeKkTQqwCQA0AyYCp0HzkYL4KBHO4sXeu99sU7XPZIrsH51OmtO8RUnI8egjIlNroTR0qXnlpy37kvKv6pzjLHWSV8lhxVb9XAzA8qXF3IqOjEwI/s200/IMG_2246.JPG" width="150" /></div>
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The east facing sanctum houses "Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar" (கைலாய ஈஸ்வரமுடைய மகாதேவர்) in the form of Shivalingam.</div>
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<b>Inscription</b><br />
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The inscription Kulottunga Chola I records the gift of Uriyur village as land endowment to Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar. The Ezhulagamudaiyaal (ஏழுலகமுடையாள்), the queen of Kulothunga Chola I made grants for the construction of Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar temple.<br />
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<span style="text-align: left;"><b>Temple Timing</b></span><br />
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Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadevar is open during day time. Plan your trip during morning or noon hours and avoid late evenings since it would be difficult to traverse through paddy fields and dam bund.<br />
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<b>How to get here?</b></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Palayakesavaram, a small Village, </span><span style="text-align: justify;">is located 60 km from Chennai, 17 km from Arakkonam K</span>esavaram Dam is about 6 km from Thakkolam. The village is situated in the border of the Vellore and Thiruvallur districts</div>
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<b>Reference</b></div>
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<li><a href="http://aalayamkanden.blogspot.in/2015/08/kailaaya-eswaram.html" target="_blank">Kailaaya Eswaram!</a> Aalayam Kanden. August 21, 2015.</li>
<li><a href="http://indiancolumbus.blogspot.com/2016/04/KesavaramTemple.html" target="_blank">Kailaya Eswaramudaiya Mahadev Temple - Kesavaram</a>. Indian Columbus. April 11, 2016. </li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-90664674213994132602016-11-19T07:48:00.000-08:002016-11-19T07:48:38.904-08:00Edayarpakkam Mahadevar Temple: Granite Structural Temple near Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 24px;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: x-small;">Mahadevar Koil, Edaiyarpakkam</span></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Varalaru.com</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial"; line-height: 24px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Apsidal shape back view</span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "helvetica" , "arial"; line-height: 24px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><img alt="Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%2814%29.JPG (913×1486)" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7V8KJ_O-iydcW3uBG2xl3PPCXs71alnKz0aoeGnV1JVlZLXFEE2oB5bIEfUYx6RoXViEAisnLYiCBqtcuFkGexYpm7CK7o62mD0YgjAFxnlQZFNqlmuuNAr62xySPbEyaiALh0oeq-ZZe/s400/Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%252814%2529.JPG" width="245" /></span></span></td></tr>
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<img alt="Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%2816%29.JPG (851×1600)" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuSPJWZ_VMFaVHxsEc8G3ubPPiTeP4sFq7TfXt6GucNkZUgdZuNMnpApRYo_siAJDzL_TeLfFAOMbb2y9e_QittzxW7xOSysQt2PNqA3ivAw4l6o8Iyq2CPjtwkr0oFYKUMKqEl-dh3BAe/s400/Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%252816%2529.JPG" width="212" /></div>
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<img alt="Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%2810%29.JPG (240×320)" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2rO6BGZ-23QH4Ih1TNp1JkE8D6Rfeo5Ed6SvEBFeF1PZSDL8glVjBlDHOOSRdC_xYkiqyoQCudwM_yT5CW1kESF55gxvuaJt9ThbCuEbXgEg7m0ryNLZNrf1_zX9rOB8H5aeuN5vu8miA/s400/Idayarpakkam_ShivaTemple+%252810%2529.JPG" width="300" /></div>
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Mahadevar Temple is located in Edayarpakkam village, Sriperumbudur taluk, Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 631553. The temple is located 22 km towards North from district head quarters Kanchipuram; 19 km from Sriperumbudur; 12.5 km from Sunguvarchatram; 9.1 km from Thakkolam; 6.1 km from Arakkonam; 0.2 km from Elmyankottur; and 58 km from the state capital Chennai. <span style="text-align: left;">This place is in the border of the Kanchipuram district and Thiruvallur district. The temple is protected by ASI.</span></div>
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The Chola period Mahadevar shrine is apsidal (horseshoe-shaped) dvitala (two tiered) vimana and an ardha-mandapam (அர்த்த-மண்டபம்). Therefore the vimana is called gajaprishta (கஜபிருஷ்ட விமானம்) or hastiprishta (ஹஸ்திபிருஷட விமானம்), both terms in Sanskrit meaning ‘back of an elephant’ as it is curved at the rear. According to dictionary.com the word 'apse' means a semicircular or polygonal termination or recess in a building. </div>
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According to most historians the apsidal form of vimana is of Buddhist origin. However current studies have confirmed that the apsidal vimana architecture was attempted by pan-Indian-tradition and the style was in existence much before the Buddhist era. This form of vimana is found in few other Chola temples in and around Chennai.<br />
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<img alt="StructuralTemple-Pallava-Idayarpakkam-03.jpg (700×850)" src="http://www.varalaaru.com/images/Issue-103/StructuralTemple-Pallava-Idayarpakkam-03.jpg" height="320" width="262" /></div>
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The entire temple structure is made out of granite and therefore it is a 'katrali' (கற்றளி). The vimana and ardhamandapam stands on a molded pada-bandha adishtana (பாதபந்த அதிஷ்டானா) with upa-peeta (உப பீடம்), jagadi (ஜகதி), tripatta kumuda (முப்பட்டைக் குமுதம்), khanta (கண்டம்) with pada and flanked by kampa (கம்பு) and pattika (பட்டிகை) mouldings. The east facing sanctum measures 3.05 m in width in the north-south direction and 4.65 m in length in the east-west direction. The sanctum entrance is 1.35 cm in width. The sanctum houses "Tiruppadakkadu udaiya Mahadevar" (திருப்படக்காடுடைய மகாதேவர்) in the form of Shivalingam.<br />
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The external walls of the vimana and ardhamandapam have five deeply cut niches (தேவகோட்டங்கள்) flanked by ornate square pilasters (அரைத்தூண்கள்). The niches on the south and north ardhamandapa walls houses the Chola style idols of Vinayaka and Durga respectively. The southern vimana wall houses the sanctum of the unique Dakshinamurthy appear seated on a pedestal under the Kallala tree (Banyan tree). The niche of the western vimana wall is empty. Brahma appear in the niche of the northern vimana wall.<br />
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Above the pilasters is the vettu potika holding the uttira. And the other roof parts are the vajana valabhi and kapota with rough kudu arches. Above the kapota is the bhumidesa denoting the end of the tala. Above the bhumidesa is seen the hara of the first tala. The hara components of second tala as well as griva, shikara and stupa (finial) might have got damaged and therefore not found at present.<br />
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<b>Inscriptions</b><br />
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There are four inscriptions belonging to the later Chola period, especially that of Kulottunga Chola I (1070 - 1120 A.D.), Kulottunga Chola II (1133 - 1150 A.D.) and Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 - 1178) are found at Edayarpakkam Mahadevar temple near Kanchipuram. The inscription (ARE 251/1910), (த நா அ தொ து 524/2013) dated 13th in the reign (year 1083 A.D.) of king Kulottunga Chola I opening with his venerated Prasasti (also known as Meikeerthi மெய்க்கீர்த்தி) is considered as the earliest inscription in this temple.<br />
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Inscriptions mention the prime deity of the temple as "Tiruppadakkadu udaiya Mahadevar" (திருப்படக்காடுடைய மகாதேவர்) as well as "Aludaiyar Tiruppadakkadu udaiyar" (ஆளுடையார் திருப்படக்காடுடையார்).<br />
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Inscriptions cite the name of this village as "Edayarruppakkam" (இடையாற்றுப்பாக்கம்). Present name seems to have transitioned from Edayarruppakkam to Edayarpakkam. Edayarruppakkam village fell under the revenue division of Purisai Nadu (புரிசை நாடு), which was a sub-division of Manavir-kottam (மணவிற் கோட்டம்) under the larger division of Jayamkonda Cholamandalam (ஜெயங்கொண்ட சோழமண்டலம்). (ஜெயங்கொண்ட சோழமண்டலத்து மணவிற்கோட்டத்துப் புரிசை நாட்டு இடையாற்றுப்பாக்கம்). The village was also known as Purisai (புரிசை) village fell under the same revenue division, part of same sub-division and coming under the same larger division (ஜெயங்கொண்ட சோழமண்டலத்து மணவிற்கோட்டத்துப் புரிசைநாட்டுப் புரிசை). The village was also popularly known as Rajavichadira Chaturvedi Mangalam (ராஜவிச்சாதிர சதுர்வேதிமங்கலம்).<br />
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The inscription (ARE 251/1910), (த நா அ தொ து 524/2013) is dated 13th in the reign (year 1083 A.D.) of king Kulottunga Chola I. It opens with his venerated Prasasti also known as Meikeerthi (மெய்க்கீர்த்தி). It records the gift of land as devadana (தேவதானம்) to Tiruppadakkadu udaiya Mahadevar by one Arurudaiyan Vaidyanatan Tiruchcirrambalamudaiyan in Kilar-kurram, a sub-division of Nittavinoda-valanadu of Chola Mandalam.<br />
(3 .. ... ஜயங்கொண்ட சோழ மண்டலத்து மணவிற்கோட்டத்து ... சோழமண்டலத்து நித்த விநோத வளநாட்டுக் கிழாற் கூற்றத்து<br />
4 .த்தங்குடி ஆரூர்ருடையாந் வைத்யநாதன் திருச்சீற்றம்பல முடையான் ... .)<br />
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The inscription (த நா அ தொ து 523/2013) is dated 13th in the reign (year 1107 A.D.) of king Kulottunga Chola I. It commences with his venerated Prasasti also known as Meikeerthi (மெய்க்கீர்த்தி). It records the gift of 95 sheep (சாவா மூவா பேராடு தொண்ணூற்றைந்து) for a perpetual lamps for the Lord Tiruppadakkadu udaiya Mahadevar at Purisai in Purisai Nadu, a sub-division of Manavir-kottam by Velan Madurantakan, the head man of Arasur, in Koneri-nadu in the Eyirk-kottam. (3 ... இம்மண்டலத்து எயிற்கோட்டத்துக் கோநேரி நாட்டுக் கோநேரியில் அரசூர்<br />
கிழவந் வேளாந் மதுராந்தகநேன் .... ) <br />
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The inscription (ARE 254/1910), (த நா அ தொ து 525/2013) is dated 12th in the reign (year 1145 A.D.) of king Kulottunga Chola II. It commences with his venerated Prasasti also known as Meikeerthi (மெய்க்கீர்த்தி). It records the gift of land purchased from the urar (ஊரார்) of Purisai, for a lamp to the temple of Aludaiyar Tiruppadakkadu udaiyar at Idaiyarruppakkam (இடையாற்றுப்பாக்கம்) alias Rajavichchadira Chaturvedimangalam (ராஜவிச்சாதிர சதுர்வேதிமங்கலம்) Purisai-nadu, a sub-division of Manavirkottam by a brahmana lady Andanaichchani, wife of Arulala pattan in the same village. (2 ... இவ்வூர் ஸவந்ந அருளாள பட்டந் மகள் ஆண்டமைச் சாநியேந் ...)<br />
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The inscription (ARE 253/1910), (த நா அ தொ து 526/2013) is dated 11th in the reign (year 1174 A.D.) of king Rajadhiraja Chola II. It records the gift of cows in exchange for a land in Purisai, granted by a brahmana lady of Idaiyarruppakkam (இடையாற்றுப்பாக்கம்) alias Rajavichchadira Chaturvedimangalam (ராஜவிச்சாதிர சதுர்வேதிமங்கலம்).<br />
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<b>How to get there?</b><br />
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By road: Edayarruppakkam is the remote village and less traveled destination. The temple is also lesser known to the public. Public transport is not available. Rental cabs can be hired from Sunguvarchatram or Sri Perumbudur or Kanchipuram.<br />
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Nearest Railway-station: There is no railway station near to Edayarpakkam in less than 10 km. However Chennai Central Rail Way Station is major railway station.</div>
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Nearest Airport: Chennai.</div>
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<b>Reference</b><br />
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<li style="text-align: justify;">ARE 1910 251 - 254</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Edayarpakkam (http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Kanchipuram/Sriperumbudur/Edayarpakkam)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Edayarpakkam Mahadevar Temple. Indian Columbus (http://indiancolumbus.blogspot.com/2016/04/edayarpakkam.html)</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">இடையார்பாக்கம் மகாதேவர் திருக்கோயில். கி.ஸ்ரீதரன்..வரலாறு.காம் இதழ் 103 ஜனவரி 9, 2013</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">தமிழ்நாட்டுக் கல்வெட்டுக்கள் - தொகுதி 4 - சீ.வசந்தி, General Editor, இரா.சிவானந்தம், Editor - சென்னை, தமிழ்நாடு அரசு தொல்லியல் துறை. 2013 பக்கங்கள் ; 49 - 54 வரை (தமிழ்நாட்டுக் கல்வெட்டுக்கள் வரிசை எண் - 43)</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Edayarpakkam, Tamil Nadu 631553, India12.9890326 79.79395060000001612.9812966 79.783865600000013 12.9967686 79.80403560000002tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-84957254195883926222016-11-14T07:02:00.001-08:002016-11-14T07:02:09.147-08:00Bhoothalingaswamy Cave Temple, Boothapandi: Hindu Rock cut Cave Temple near Nagerkoil, Tamil Nadu, India <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Boothapandi (பூதப்பாண்டி) Rock cut cave temple complex is located in Thovalai (தோவாளை) taluk, Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 629852 and the village is forming part of Boothapandi Town Panchayat. The geographical coordinates of Boothapandi are <span style="text-align: left;">8°16′22″N </span>latitude <span style="text-align: left;">77°26′24″E</span> longitude. As of 2001 India census, Boothapandi had a population of <span style="text-align: left;">14,721 and </span><span style="text-align: left;">an average literacy rate of 82%</span>. <span style="text-align: left;">The village lies on the western bank of </span><span style="text-align: left;">Pazhaiyar river (பழையாறு)</span><span style="text-align: left;">, at </span><span style="text-align: left;">Thadakaimalai (தடாகமலை)</span><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">foot hill. Thadakaimalai is believed as the abode of Thadaka in the Indian epic Ramayana and hence the place attains legendary importance. </span>Boothapandi is 13 km (8.00 miles) away from Nagerkoil, </div>
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The taluk head-quarters town spans over an area of around five sq km. Boothapandi is surrounded by the lush green fields, grove of coconut trees and the scenic hills of the Western Ghats (Sahyadri) in the background. Azhakiya Pandiapuram (அழகிய பாண்டியபுரம்) is in the north-west (6.2 km), Santhimangalam (சாந்திமங்கலம்) in the south-west (3 km), Thalakudi (தாழக்குடி) in the south-east (3.2 km) and Aralvoimozhi (ஆரல்வாய்மொழி) in the east (11 km). Bhoothalingaswamy Temple (பூதலிங்கஸ்வாமி கோவில்) in Boothapandi is in the tourist map of Kanyakumari district. Thovalai, Kanyakumari, and Vattakottai are nearby tourist destinations. <span style="text-align: left;">P. Jeevanandham (ப.ஜீவானந்தம்) (1907–1963) also known as Jeeva (</span><span style="text-align: left;">ஜீவா</span><span style="text-align: left;">), one of the pioneers of the Communist Party of India and political leader, known freedom fighter, social reformer and litterateur was born in Boothapandi.</span><br />
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<b>Legend</b><br />
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Long ago a cow-boy was taking care of cow-herds. The boy got surprised about the low milk yielding cow and suspected that someone is milking the cow without his knowledge. When followed the cow, the cow proceeded straight to a small cave surrounded by bushes and showered the milk there. He saw that a devil (bootha) engaged in drinking milk directly from the cow. People got afraid to go near the cow. The Pandya king was informed about the cow's mysterious action and the king ordered his soldiers to find out the reason for the mysterious events. Soldiers removed the thorny bush and made access inside the cave. They saw that the cow showering the milk over the Shiva-lingam. The king was reported about the mysterious cow showering milk on the Shiva-lingam. The king ordered to built a temple around the cave and the prime deity Shiva-lingam was named as Boothalingaswamy. Thadakaimalai is regarded as the adobe of Thataka, the Yaksha princess-turned-demoness in the Hindu epic Ramayana. The presiding deity of the temple is known as Boothalingaswamy, locally known as Salian Kanda Thirumani.<br />
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<span style="text-align: left;"><b>Architecture</b></span><br />
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<span style="text-align: left;">Boothalingaswamy Temple complex (பூதலிங்கஸ்வாமி கோவில் வளாகம்) includes the rock cut cave The cave temple is excavated on the eastern slope of the side of the hillock situated in the middle of the village. This temple comprise an outer prakara, inner prakara and the main cave with a frontward pillared mandapam constituting a large complex. The rock cut cave forms nucleus structure around which temple structures added in the subsequent period of time. Altogether forming the large temple complex.</span><br />
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<span style="text-align: left;">A large perimeter wall in the periphery encloses the outer prakara. </span><span style="text-align: left;">The temple is accessible from four entrances. The western entrance is through three tier gopuram or gateway. The gopuram has granite base and three tiered brick super-structure decorated with stucco images. The pillars, supporting base tier of the gopuram, bear images of the donors (of the temple) appear in folded hand gesture (mudra) On the west face of the tower there are two guards in stucco images appear holding small and large clubs in each of their hands. On top of the boulder towards east of this tower, there are two stucco images: one is a milking cow and the other one is Lord Shiva with trident. . </span><br />
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<span style="text-align: left;"><img alt="Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-7.jpg (1065×1600)" src="http://www.yatrastotemples.com/wp-content/gallery/bhoothalingaswamy-temple-in-dovalai-in-kanyakumari/Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-7.jpg" height="400" style="text-align: center;" width="266" /></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><img alt="Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-8.jpg (1065×1600)" src="http://www.yatrastotemples.com/wp-content/gallery/bhoothalingaswamy-temple-in-dovalai-in-kanyakumari/Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-8.jpg" height="400" width="266" /></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><img alt="6949d038e3612f03e07966d9a829ccda.jpg (700×394)" src="http://citypatriots.com/uploads/locations/places/full/6949d038e3612f03e07966d9a829ccda.jpg" height="225" width="400" /></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">There are two entrances on the south wall. The westward entrance arch on the south wall is decorated with stucco image of Lord Shiva with consort Uma in Ananda-thandava posture. Also there are two musicians on either side of dancing Shiva. The eastward entrance on the south wall leads to the river Pazhaiyaru. The simple entrance on the eastern wall is located before the sanctum </span><span style="text-align: left;">of the prime deity. The entrance on the northern wall leads to the temple tank with a mandapam in middle (நீராழி மண்டபம்)</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img alt="Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-2.jpg (1600×1065)" src="http://www.yatrastotemples.com/wp-content/gallery/bhoothalingaswamy-temple-in-dovalai-in-kanyakumari/Bhoothalingaswamy-Temple-in-Dovalai-in-Kanyakumari-2.jpg" height="266" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Southern inner entrance leads to Pazhaiyaru river</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="text-align: left;">On the western side to the left of the entrance of the outer prakara adjoining the rock slope is the shrine for Sastha. There is a Pillaiyar shrine under the tree </span>The inner perimeter wall encloses the sanctums of the prime deity, goddess Sivakami, shrines for minor deities, mandapams and inner prakara. The parts of the inner southern and northern walls sit on the rock. There are three entrances leading to the inner prakara: One entrance on the southern wall, other two entrances on the eastern and northern walls. The eastern entrance leads to sanctum of the goddess Sivakami. Another entrance with single tier gopuram leads to the prime sanctum. The southern entrance leads to Pazhaiyaru river. This entrance is supported by adishtana, pillars with square, kattu, square sections, vettu-potikas and prastara components. The ornamental arch houses the celestial wedding event: Lord Vishnu handing-over goddess Meenakshi to Lord Sundareswara. </div>
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The inner prakara extends on all three sides except the rocky western side. The inner prakara includes sanctums of god and goddess as well as shrines for minor deities i.e., Kanni Vinayagar, Sastha and Somaskanthar. Somaskantha shrine has sanctum and mukha-mandapam and vimana with nagara griva and shikara. Sastha shrine has eka-tala nagara vimana and sanctum guarded by dwarapalakas (boothas). Kanni Vinayagar shrine has eka-tala vesara vimana and sanctum and mukha-mandapam. Chandigeswara shrine and Dakshinamurti shrine are located on the north and south side prakara of the prime deity. There is a shrine for Lord Muruga and his two consorts Valli and Devayani.</div>
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<b>Mandapam</b></div>
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Two mandapams are located before the sanctums of god and goddess and they are known as wedding mandapam (கல்யாண மண்டபம்) and Chettiar mandapam (செட்டியார் மண்டபம்). The wedding hall is supported by ornate pillars with bas relief sculptures. Some are simple pillars sectioned by square kattu and square and some other pillars are composite pillars. The cupid or Kamadeva Manmatha and his love Rathi images appear on a pillar. The Chettiar Hall is also supported by ornate pillars with bas relief sculptures. Some are huge Yali pillars.<br />
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<b>Sivagami Amman Shrine</b><br />
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The east facing Sivagami Amman shrine has a two tier vimana, mukha-mandapam and large mandapam. The vimana, built on a granite base with a brick superstructure, has a kapotabanda adhishtana and the vedika component is shown in between the adhishtana and pada (wall). The octagonal (Vishnu-kanta) pilasters with nagabandha pada support the roof. The potikas above the pillars are madalai with nanudal tipped with sharp bud bearing the prastara components that adjoin the roof. The three sides of the external walls are sectioned and shown as simple koshta-panjara. The Adi-tala hara walls have been raised considerably high and the second tala also has hara walls. The stucco images adorn in sala and griva koshtas. <br />
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<b>Mandapam</b><br />
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The mukha-mandapam and large mandapams were added before the cave sanctum of the prime deity during later age. The mukha-mandapam has supportive floor, wall supported by square pilasters, taranga potikas and prastara components. Kapota has ornate kudus. The large mandapam can be accessed through entrances at east and south walls. Mandapam is supported by square kattu square kattu square pillars with vettu potikas. The bronze idols are protected in this mandapam. The Vinayaka idol in lalitasana posture is found in the inner mandapam.<br />
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<b>Cave Sanctum</b><br />
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The Cave sanctum is .1.71 m in the north-south direction; 1.38 m in the east-west (south wall) direction; 1.46 m in the east-west (north wall) direction; with the height of 1.73 m..The floor, roof and the walls of the cave sanctum are well formed. The sanctum entrance is 0.67 cm in width and 1.60 m in height.<br />
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The sanctum houses <span style="text-align: left;">Boothalingaswamy</span> (பூதலிங்கசுவாமி) in the form of Shivalingam. Shivalingam is sculpted out of the mother rock and the rectangular 'avudai' measures 0.80 cm in length in the north-south; 0.75 cm in width in the east-west directions and 0.52 cm in height. The external faces of avudai is embellished with padabandha adishtana with components such as jagadi (ஜகதி), vritta kumudam (குமுதம்), khanta flanked kampa and pattaka mouldings. The rudra (cylindrical) bana sits on the square avudai. A small pit is shown towards north to receive the anointed water. A water chute is seen running up to the north wall of the sanctum and continued in the east wall of the sanctum.<br />
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<b style="text-align: left;">History</b></div>
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The cave temple has been named after the presence of Bhoothalingaswamy Temple (Bhoothapandi), which is famous for its sculptures and architecture. The cave temple was excavated by King Pasum Pon Pandyan, the son of Boothapandiyan, <span style="text-align: left;">Flag post of this temple is very tall and the temple car here is very old and higher in weight. A shrine dedicated for Tamil Poet Avvaiyar is located at 5 km away from Bhoothalingaswamy temple.</span><br />
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<span style="text-align: left;"><b>Inscriptions</b></span><br />
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Kanyakumari District Inscriptions volume 5. (கன்னியாகுமாரி மாவட்டக் கல்வெட்டுத் தொகுதி 5) Chennai, Department of Archaeology Government of Tamil Nadu, 1969 pp. 69 - 81 has published eleven inscriptions copied from this temple as well as two inscriptions from North street of this village. The first inscription located nearer to Jeeva library cites two streets in the name of Udhaya Marthandan (உதய மார்த்தாண்டன்) and Boothala Raman (பூதல இராமன்) an asylum to someone under threat also known as Abhaya Dhanam (Jainism) or Anjinan Pukalidam (Tamil அஞ்சினான் புகலிடம்). Another inscription dated 19th day Tamil month Thai 1691 A.D.was inscribed on behalf of Adi Chandeswara endowment. The inscription is about Vadakku Saliyar, weaving community people (Padmasali), who lived in this village during 17th century A.D. They migrated to Vadaseri (near Nagerkoil) after lot of suffering and they were colonized back in Boothapandi village.</div>
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Inscription dated Tamil month Masi, year 1789 cites the installation of flag-post in this temple. Another inscription on the pillar of Nandi Mandapam records one Thanumarthandan.(Tamil தாணுமார்த்தாண்டன்). Remaining nine inscriptions are inscribed on the walls of goddess Sivakami (Amman) shrine. Inscription dated 1578 A.D. records the gift of 25 numbers of five wick oil lamps standing on their stems and pedestals, fabricated in brass (குத்துவிளக்கு) by one Ayyappan Pariyerum Perumal of Boothapandi village. The lamps would be burnt before the prime deity. It also includes land endowments for daily oil consumption. The gift was accepted by Sri Karyam (temple) staff. Signed by Puttur Eswaran, Sri Karyam (temple) accountant,, Kannan Govindan, Treasury accountant and Bootha Nambiyar, Endowment accountant.<br />
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Inscription dated 1581 A.D. records the assurance made by Sri Karyam staff to offer one measure of ghee and ten banana and arrange for the celestial dance of prime deity during pooja rituals every month on the Apara (Pitru) Paksham, Ashtami (eighth) tithi day. For this purpose the staff accepted one hundred 'panam' as deposit from one Kali-paappan of Perumanguli desam in Mudala Nadu district, forming part of Malai Mandalam province (Tamil: மலை மண்டலத்து முடாலா நாட்டுப் பெறுமாங்குழி தேசத்துக் காளிபாப்பன்). Another inscription dated 1581 A.D. records the land endowment for pooja rituals and offerings to the prime deity on the Vasantham day, Tamil month Chithirai by one Eswaran Kesavan of Makizhanjeru house in Kadaikkasu Desam (Tamil: கடைக்காசு தேச மகிழஞ்சேறு இல்லத்து ஈஸ்வரன் கேசவன் ). Inscription also cites places like Azhagiya Pandiyapuram, Kadukkarai, Pallacha Peru and Veeraneri Kulam.<br />
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Inscription dated 1583 A.D. records the deposit of two hundred 'panam' made for pooja rituals of Lord Dakshinamurti by Pasumpirathu Gangaiyadi Bhattar of Azhagan Azhaga Chaturvedimangalam of Padmanabhanallur (Tamil பத்மநாபநல்லூர் அழகன் அழகச் சதுர்வேதிமங்கலத்துப் பசும்பிறத்து கங்கையாடி பட்டர் ). Yet another inscription dated 1607 A.D. records the deposit of three hundred 'panam' for purposes of early morning rituals (திருப்பள்ளியெழுசசி), ablution (அபிஷேகம்) and offerings (படையல்) to the prime deity in the name of one Sooranai Vendra Adittan of Padmanabhanallur aka. Murungur of Nanjil Nadu (Tamil நாஞ்சில் நாட்டு முருங்கூரான பத்மனாபநல்லூரில் சூரனை வென்ற ஆதித்தன்).<br />
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Incomplete inscription dated 1614 A.D. records the deposit of seven hundred 'panam' for purposes of pooja rituals and offerings for procession deity Lord Chandrasekarar during new-moon day procession by one Velayudha Perumal of Mulainallur in Nanjil Nadu (Tamil: நாஞ்சில் நாட்டு முளைநல்லூர் வேலாயுதப்பெருமாள்). Mentions the temple staff and their specific duties during procession as well as minor deities. Another inscription dated 1618 A.D. records the deposit / gift of nine hundred 'panam' for purposes of procession of prime deity and goddess on 'Bharani' star day in Tamil month 'Chithirai' by Settu Silaiyan Ariyakutti, a resident of Tiruvidangur Ravi-varmar (aka. Kulasekara Perumal) street. Specific expenses include feeding the brahmins, Maheswara pooja rituals, rice flakes, Nambimar Adangal, Sala Sambavinai, Namimar Tantra Salavu, evening ablution, camphor etc.<br />
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Inscription dated 1658 A.D. records the royal order issued by Elder Thambiran Eraivai Ravivarma,during his stay in the palace of Boothapandi after pooja rituals of the temple. The royal order is in consideration of peasants plea on vacating stay of land charges vs the defense side representation made by the revenue staff. Inscription without date lists out the offerings made by the temple authorities to the Pooja rituals of Lord Chidambareswarar during the Tamil month Markazhi.<br />
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<b>Temple Timings</b> : Morning 4:00 A.M. – 11:00 A.M. Evening 4:00 P.M. to 7:30 P.M.</div>
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<b>Poojas & Festivals:</b> Pradosham (13th tithi) Day, Special pooja on New moon Full moon days. Annual festival on Thai (Tamil) month and Chithirai (Tamil) month. </div>
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<b>How to get there?</b><br />
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The town of Boothapandi is connected to Nagercoil by road.<br />
Nearest railway station: The closest railway station is the Nagercoil Junction Railway Station.<br />
Nearest airport is the Tiruvanandapuram International airport<br />
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><a href="http://www.tourismeveryone.com/India-Tamil_Nadu-Kanyakumari-Bhoothalingaswamy_Temple_Bhoothappandi" target="_blank">Bhoothalingaswamy Temple Bhoothappandi</a>. Tourism Everyone. </li>
<li><a href="http://www.findmytemple.com/en/kanyakumari/t120-bhoothalingaswamy,-bhoothappandi" target="_blank">Bhoothalingaswamy Temple Bhoothappandi</a>. Find My Temple.</li>
<li>Bhoothalingaswamy Temple, Bhoothappandi (Wikipedia)</li>
<li>பூதப்பாண்டிக் குடைவரை பல்லவர் - பாண்டியர் - அதியர் குடைவரைகள். மு.நளினி மற்றும் இரா.கலைக்கோவன். சேகர் பதிப்பகம், சென்னை, 2012. பக். 221 - 233. </li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Boothapandi, Tamil Nadu, India8.2641397999999988 77.44581518.2484258 77.425645100000011 8.2798537999999979 77.4659851tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-36883701261918579472016-11-05T06:45:00.001-07:002016-11-05T06:45:49.575-07:00Sivagiri Sri Mahadevar Cave-temple Alvarkoyil: Hindu Rock cut Cave near Nagerkoil, Tamil Nadu, India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Sivagiri (சிவகிரி) Sri Mahadevar (ஸ்ரீ மகாதேவர்) Rock cut cave temple is located in Alwarkovil (ஆழ்வார்கோவில்) village, Kalkulam (கல்குளம்) taluk, Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, India and the village is forming part of Eraniel Town Panchayat. The geographical coordinates of Eraniel (Eranyasinga nalloor) are 8.2°N latitude 77.3°E longitude. It has an average elevation of 10 meters (32 feet). There is a small palace located near Eraniel. <span style="color: #252525;"><span style="line-height: 22.4px;">It is nearer to Thuckalay. </span></span>Alwarkovil is 30 km away from Nagerkoil.<br />
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<b>Architecture</b><br />
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The east facing Sivagiri (சிவகிரி) Sri Mahadevar (ஸ்ரீ மகாதேவர்) rock cut cave temple is excavated on the eastern slope of Sivagiri hillock and therefore the cave lies in an east-west orientation. The prime deity Shivagirinathar appear in the form of Shivalingam and the Shivalingam image is sculpted out from the mother rock of the cave. The rock cut cave forms nucleus structure around which temple structures added in the subsequent period of time. The cave temple complex comprise a mukha-mandapam, cloister-mandapam (சுற்றுமாளிகை ) and another large mandapam (பெருமண்டபம்)..<br />
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<i>Cloister Mandapam</i><br />
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The cloister mandapam is built around the three sides of single celled cave. The adhistana and the pillars of this mandapam are highly ornamented. On the east wing of the cloister mandapam is supported by composite pillars with amazing yali (யாளி) motif. Yali is a mythical creature seen in many temples, often sculpted onto the pillars. The pillars supporting the north and south wings of the cloister mandapam are sectioned as square, octagonal kattu, square, octagonal kattu and square. The facade of the cloister mandapam has a corridor (open court) and the access can be made through two entrances located on the east and north wings. The south entrance of the cloister mandapam leads to temple kitchen (மடப்பள்ளி) and large mandapam.<br />
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<i>Nandi Mandapam</i><br />
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In the center of the mandapa there is a Nandi mandapam. The seated Nandi on a platform is facing Shivagirinathar, the presiding deity. Nandi mandapam is built on a plinth (adhishtana) with jagadi, khantam and peruvajana mouldings. The four pillars of the Nandi mandapam are sectioned as square, octagonal kattu, square, octagonal kattu and square. Above the pillars there are vettu potikas (corbel brackets) holding the prastara components such as uttira (beam), vajanam, valabhi and kapotha. <br />
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<i>Mukha-mandapam</i><br />
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Mukha-mandapam is built to the west of Nandi-mandapam i.e., adjoining to the rock wall of the cave. It has a padabandha adhisthana with jagadi, octogonal kumudam, kantha with pada and flanked by kampa and pattika mouldings. Above the adhisthana is the vedika with vedikanda. Mukkha-mandapam is supported by four square pilasters with capitals. The vettu potikas (corbel brackets) holding the prastara components such as uttira (beam), vajanam, valabhi and kapotha with kudus. The south and north walls are sectioned with square pilasters and shown as simple koshta-panjara. The entrance on the east wall is 0.61 cm in width and 1.36 m in height.<br />
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The sanctum can be approached either from flight of three steps with balustrade on the south or from similar flight of three steps with balustrade on the north. The two sets of flight of steps leads to the raised plinth with upana, thamarai, khanta and kapota mouldings. <br />
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<i>Sanctum</i><br />
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The entrance from mukha-mandapam is supported by square pilasters on either side. The sanctum excavated from the rock. The sanctum measures 1.72 m in width in the north-south direction and 1.70 m in length in the east-west direction and 1.70 m in height. The sanctum entrance is 0.85 cm in width and 1.46 m in height. The sanctum houses Shivagirinathar (சிவகிரிநாதர்) in the form of Shivalingam. Shivalingam sculpted out of the mother rock and the square 'avudai' measures 0.24 cm in height and 0.65 cm in length on all four sides. The cylindrical bana sits on the square avudai. The walls and roof of the sanctum are simple and plain.<br />
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<b>How to get there?</b><br />
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One can easily get regular buses to Eraniel from other major cities of the country. All buses from Thingalnagar bus stand will pass through Eraniel. Many buses run from Nagercoil via Eraniel. For every 5 minutes you have buses to Nagercoil and for every 15 minutes you have buses to Thuckalay<br />
Nearest railway station is Eraniel railway station. Nagerkoil railway station is the main junction<br />
Nearest airport is Thiruvananthapuram International Airport. - 72 km away<br />
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<b>Reference</b><br />
<ol>
<li>சிவகிரிக் குடைவரை தென்மாவட்டக் குடைவரைகள். மு.நளினி மற்றும் இரா.கலைக்கோவன். (தென்தமிழ்நாட்டுக் குடைவரைகள்: தொகுதி 3). டாக்டர் மா.இராசமாணிக்கனார் வரலாற்றாய்வு மையம், திருச்சிராப்பள்ளி. 2009. பக். 148 - 150. </li>
<li>சிவகிரி (sivakiri) - ஸ்ரீ மகாதேவர் (ஆழ்வார்கோவில்) திருக்கோவில்; தக்கலை - ஆழ்வார்கோவில்.</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com0Eraniel, Tamil Nadu, India8.2061666999999989 77.3166294000000118.1904507 77.296459400000018 8.2218826999999983 77.3367994tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-39550374832364535462016-10-28T08:43:00.000-07:002016-10-28T08:43:10.295-07:00Kurathiarai Cave Temple: Hindu Rock cut Cave near Nagerkoil, Tamil Nadu, India<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Picture Courtesy: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/lakshmi.physio/posts/10208893881479228?pnref=story" target="_blank">RK Lakshmi</a> (Facebook)</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">Kurathiyarai (குறத்தியறை) Rock cut cave temple is located in Thovalai (<span style="text-align: left;">தோவாளை</span>) taluk of Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, India PIN 629851 and the village is forming part of Azhagiapandiapuram (<span style="text-align: left;">அழகியபாண்டியபுரம்</span>), town panchayat. Kurathiyarai village is situated in the Nagerkoil - Kadukkarai road. Take diversion before Azhagiapadiapuram and and find out muddy road and travel </span>one km to reach this village. <span style="font-family: inherit;">The geographical coordinates of Azhagiapandiapuram are 8°18′35″N latitude 77°26′45″E longitude. As of 2001 India census, Azhagiapandiapuram had a population of 12,060 5966 male and 6074 </span>female)<span style="font-family: inherit;">. Azhagiapandiapuram is 17 km away from Nagerkoil, </span></div>
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Kanyakumari district well known for places of legendary, historical and artistic importance. You would be enthralled to see the lush green paddy fields, swaying palms, meandering dusty gravel roads, bullock carts crawling with loads of straw bale, and criss-crossing water streams. Agriculture is the main occupation in this region. Thovalai and the surrounding area is involved in the fresh flower industry for sale to domestic and foreign markets. The Nagerkoil is the base destination to visit Kanyakumari, Udayagiri fort, Padmanabhpuram Palace, Muttam Beach, Tengapattinam Beach, and Krishnancoil temple.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The south facing rock cut cave is excavated on the slope of the hillock at the outskirts of the village. The cave cell is excavated 0.95 cm in width and 1.77 m in height and east-west in orientation. The entrance is 80 cm in width and 1.30 m in height. Local people made provision for wooden door and walls coated with cement. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit;">The </span>horse shoe shaped <span style="font-family: inherit;">cave excavation remains incomplete and the floor, roof and walls of the cave appear coarse. The sanctum is 1.52 m in east-west in length and 1.13 m north- </span>south in width and 2.04 m in height. The niche carved on the rear wall measures 40 cm in height. The niche, flanked by two square pilasters, houses Lord Vishnu.<span style="font-family: inherit;"> The pilasters support the angular potika and uttira. The prastara including vajanam, valabi and kapota are absent. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 12.8px;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Picture Courtesy: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/lakshmi.physio/posts/10208893881479228?pnref=story" target="_blank">RK Lakshmi</a> (Facebook)</span><br />
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Lord Vishnu image appears in samapatha sthanaka posture on the rear wall and image is dull and smudged with oil. The Lord wears kreeta makuta, kundala ear-ring, yagnopavita (sacred cord) runs across his chest, and drapes dhoti as a five fold tuck in wrap (panchkacha) and the waist cloth (idaikattu) is tucked with knot. He holds the chanka (conch) in his back right hand and his back left hand holds Chakra (disc wheel). His right forearm rests on the hip and the left forehand kept half folded. Scholars assign the date of Vishnu as eighth century A.D. </div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">Picture Courtesy: <a href="https://www.facebook.com/lakshmi.physio/posts/10208893881479228?pnref=story" target="_blank">RK Lakshmi</a> (Facebook)</span></div>
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<span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">Two niches carved are carved </span>outside on the rock slope <span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">one on each side of the cave entrance. The niche on the west of the entrance is 89 cm in height and 63 cm in width and houses Vinayagar idol </span><span style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">. </span>The Vinayagar is seated in posture described as ‘Lalitasana’ (posture of royal ease) with his right leg drawn up and folded and the left leg resting on the ground. The Lord in ‘Lalitasana’ represents a calm and relaxed deity and the idol appear with trunk to the right side is known as <span style="font-family: inherit;">valampuri Vinayagar (</span>வலம்புரி விநாயகர்<span style="font-family: inherit;">). </span><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Lord wears karanda-makutam (</span>கரண்டமகுடம்<span style="font-family: inherit;">), sarapali (</span>சரப்பளி<span style="font-family: inherit;">) in the neck, armlets (</span>தோள்வளை<span style="font-family: inherit;">), bracelets (</span>கைவளை<span style="font-family: inherit;">) and short robe around the waist. </span>The right tusk is present while left tusk is absent. The back left hand is damaged and the back right hand shows kapitha mudra. <span style="font-family: inherit;">The</span> right fore-hand holds an object which is not unidentifiable and left forehand rests on the lap.</div>
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The image on eastern niche is left incomplete and sculpting do not show any shape. However the local people worship this image as Avvaiyar. Although the presiding deity in this cave is Vishnu, the temple is locally known as Avvaiyaaramman koil. The image on the left side of Lord Vishnu is believed to be that of Avvai.<br />
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<span style="line-height: 17px;">The worship of Avvaaiyar in Thovalai taluk in Kanyakumari district is locally as Avvai Nonbu or Avvai Vratham. The Tuesdays of Tamil month Adi is most auspicious for Avvaiyar worship. Womenfolk offer 'Kozhukkattai' (steam boiled rice ball with sweet stuffing) to Avvaiyaaramman.</span><br />
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From inscriptions from Chitharal mountain, there was a Jain cave temple at the top of Chitharal mountain and was known as Thiru Charanathu Malai. The monks belonging to the Digambara sect established Thiru Charanathu Palli – the abode of Jain monks during 9th century A.D. Thiru Charanathu Palli was a dynamic center of Jain learning - a monastery and a school. The male teacher was called ‘kuravar’ and the female teacher ‘kurathi.’ <span style="line-height: 17px;">The word Kurathi (</span>குறத்தி<span style="line-height: 17px;">) also denotes a Jain nun. Influence of Jainism in Kurathiyarai is evident from the first syllable 'Kurathi. </span>The inscription also cites the Ay king Vikramaditya Varaguna (885-925 AD). The scholars assign the date of the cave to 8th century A.D.<br />
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<span style="font-family: inherit; text-align: justify;">Bus Route: Thovalai is well connected by bus from Nagerkoil and Kanyakumari.</span></div>
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Nearest Railway station: Nagercoil Junction is a major railway junction connecting the southern tip of India with all parts of India.<br />
<span style="line-height: 22px;">Nearest Airport Thiruvananthapuram</span><br />
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<b style="font-family: inherit;">Reference</b></div>
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<li><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;"><a href="https://www.facebook.com/lakshmi.physio/posts/10208893881479228?pnref=story" target="_blank">Kurathiarai Rock-cut Cave -Nagercoil -Kanyakumari District</a>. </span><span style="color: #1d2129; line-height: 19.32px;">RK Lakshmi.</span><span style="color: #1d2129; line-height: 19.32px;"> </span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;">Facebook</span><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;">.</span></li>
<li>Tales of Avvaiyaar March 6, 2009 (http://hmindia.blogspot.in/2009/03/ack-086-tales-of-avvaiyaar.html)</li>
<li><span style="color: #1d2129; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19.32px;">குறத்தியறை. மு. நளினி. வரலாறு.காம் இதழ் 47. மார்ச் 16 - ஏப்ரல் 17, 2008.</span></li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7097926775163332326.post-21940772791141859072016-10-16T05:04:00.001-07:002016-10-16T05:36:41.451-07:00Thirunanthikarai Cave Temple<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Thirunandhikarai,<span style="background-color: #f6f7f9; color: #1d2129; font-family: helvetica, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16.08px; text-align: start;"> (Tamil: திருநந்திக்கரை, Malayalam: തിരുനന്തികര ) </span> also known as Thirunandhikara, rock cut cave is located in Thirunandhikarai village, Kalkulam (கல்குளம்) taluk, Kanyakumari (கன்னியாகுமரி மாவட்டம்) district, Tamil Nadu state, India PIN 629161. This village is located in the Kulasekaram (குலசேகரம்) - Pechipparai (பேச்சிப்பாறை) road and forms part of Thirparappu special village panchayat and Kulasekharam post office limit. The Latitude and Longitude coordinates of Kulasekaram are N 8° 22' 5.1445" (8.368096°) and E 77° 18' 3.0622" (77.300851°) respectively. The elevation / altitude of Kulasekaram is 280 meters (920 feet) above sea level. </span></span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Kanyakumari, mostly preferred by travelers since it has many tourist attractions. There are around 25 tourist places in Kanyakumari district for the travelers to explore and they include Vivekananda Rock Memorial, Muttom Beach, Keeriparai Reserve Forest, and Ullakaarvi, all vie for attention. Other charmers include Government Museum, Thanumalayan Temple, and Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary. Thirparappu Falls (திற்பரப்பு அருவி) is the famous falls in the Kothai River (கோதை ஆறு). Kulasekaram has many rubber plantations. and has a respectable transport network Thirunandhikarai village and cave are located 3 km from Kulasekaram, 11 km from Pechiparai Dam (பேச்சிப்பாறை அணை), 5 km from Thriparappu Waterfalls, 38 km from Nagerkoil and 50 km from Kanyakumari. The nearest airport is at Thiruvananthapuram. The best season to visit places in Kanyakumari is between February - December. ISRO chairman Mr. Madhavan Nair was born and brought up in Thirunandhikarai.</span></span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">There are two important Shiva temples </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">in Thirunandhikarai</span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">: Thirunanthikara Nanthishwaran Temple and Thirunandhikara Cave Temple. Nanthishwaran Temple is situated on the river banks of Nandhiaaru. Thirunandhikarai is the fourth shivalayam among the 12 saivite shrines in Kanyakumari district (1 Tirumalai, 2 Thikkurichi, 3 Thirparappu, 4 Thirunandhikkarai, 5 Ponmanai, 6 Pannippagam, 7 Kallkkulam, 8 Melancode, 9 Thiruvidaicode, 10 Thiruvithamkode, 11 Thiruppanticode and 12 Thirunattalam). There will be a marathon run by saivite devotees from shrine Thirumalai, the first shivalayam, to the twelfth, Thirunattalam on the day of Shivratri. The traditional Shiva temple also houses shrines for Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The south facing Thirunandhikkarai rock cut cave temple is excavated on the southern slope of the hillock and therefore the cave lies in an east-west orientation. The cave floor is formed 4 m above the ground level. A flight of ten steps (including the two steps provided later by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), leads to the cave. Eight steps sculpted on the (mother) rock slope. The facade is 4.97 m in the north-south and 0.51 cm in the east-west directions. The evenly leveled rock ground is 5.68 m in the east-west and 64 cm in the south-north directions. The finely leveled rock floor is formed 4 cm above the rock ground and measures about 52 cm in the south-north and 5.40 m in the east-west directions. The upana is sculpted 5 cm above the rock floor and runs from east to west. </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The facade is 4.97 m in the north-south and 0.51 cm in the east-west directions. It consists of two massive pillars in the middle and two pilasters on the corners. The pillars and the pilasters are square-kattu-square in shape. The plain angular potikas (corbels) support the slender uttira (beam). and </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">there</span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">is no vajana </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">above uttira. The rough rock brow forms the kapota (not designed well). The canopy of the kapota is flat. and do not incline downwards. Above the brow there are two rectangular sockets. There are also two sockets on the rock floor. These four sockets suggest the chances</span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"> of forming temporary shed (பந்தல்). One meter above the kapota, bhumidesa is indicated with grooves and carvings. </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The mother rock excavated well from top to down to match slopes of the hillock. The western wall is 1.97 m in height and 1.04 m in width and the eastern wall is 1.89 m in height and 1.19 m in width. There are two 1.54 m tall (shallow) niches on both the walls and Vettezhuthu inscriptions.(வட்டெழுத்து கல்வெட்டுக்கள்) are inscribed. The Vattezhuthu inscription on the 82 cm wide eastern wall is damaged and the other inscription on the western wall is intact. The upper square, kattu and part of lower square of the western facade pillar bear another Vettezhuthu inscription.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The facade leads to the rectangular mukha-mandapam which is 0.86 m in the north-south and 3.28 m in the east-west directions and 2.23 m in height. The inner-mandapam floor is raised to 0.6 cm in height. The mukha-mandapam floor is evenly sculpted. The plain eastern and western walls of mukha-mandapam show prastara components i.e., uttiram and vajanam between wall and the roof. The vajana is running through out the mandapam. The inner-mandapam on the rear is 5.40 m in east-west and 2.42 m in north-south directions and 2.18 m in height. Two square pilasters on either side of the cave walls of the inner-mandapam are supporting the uttira. The walls are plain. The roof of the mandapa is well formed. </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The square sanctum is 2.16 m in all the four sides and 2.17 m height,. The walls and roof are plain. The Shiva Lingam is instituted in a socket pit which is 70 cm in east-west and 1 m in north-south directions. The square avudai is 82 cm in north-west and 78 cm in east-west directions and 0.53 cm in height. The external faces of avudai is embellished with padhabandha adishtana with components such as jagadhi (<span style="font-family: inherit;">ஜகதி</span>), octogonal kumudam (</span><span style="line-height: 18.2px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">குமுதம்</span></span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">), khantam with pada flanked by kampa and without patiikai. The rudra bana is 44 cm in height. A small pit is shown towards north to receive the anointed water. A water chute is seen running up to the north wall and east wall of the sanctum and continued in the east wall of the mukha-mandapam. </span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The northern wall of the inner-mandapam is washed with stucco coatings (sudhai) and painted with mural paintings. The mural paintings are considered as important since paintings belongs to earlier phase of Kerala mural art. The line paintings include the human figure with folded right hand on the chest and wears necklace with dollar. The right leg is folded and rested on the seat. The left leg could not be viewed.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The Ganapathy image is sculpted on the western wall of the mukha mandapam. The Lord wears Karandamakutam with head band, yagnopavitha, armlets and bracelets. The right rear-hand holds broken tusk, right fore-hand holds an unknown object, the rear left-hand holds sugar cane leaves and the fore-hand is damaged. The left tusk is visible and the right one could not be seen. The Vidyadharar is seen above right hand corner of Ganapathi. The flying figure holds a flower.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 26.6667px;">History:</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Ay dynasty ruled the land between Nagercoil and Thiruvalla and Vizhinjam, The Ay Kingdom located to the south of Chera kingdom "functioned for long as an effective buffer state between the declining Chera kingdom and an emerging Pandya Kingdom." Ay dynasty was later known as Venad (வேள்நாடு / வேணாடு) dynasty. This land was also the scene of many battles. In 788 A.D, Vikramaditya Varaguna (885–925), an illustrious Ay ruler ruled Venad. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Jatilavarman Parantaka (Maranjadayan) the Pandya king waged a war over Ay kingdom and encircled Vizhinjam port. The Pandya conquered the Ays and made it a tributary state. Still the Ays refused to submit and fought against Pandyas for almost a century. Despite frequent defeats Cheras continued to exist as a fighting force. During ninth century Cheras rose again as a notable power. This region came under Cheras during the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman Tiruvadi (978 - 1036 A.D.). Rajaraja Chola I waged a war against the Venad ruler and captured the southern region and named it as Rajaraja Tennadu. Muttom is the fishing village in Kalkulam taluk. Rajaraj Chola I named it as Mummudi Chola Nallur. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">The department of archaeology was started under the initiative of Professor Sundaram Pillai and the then Maharajah of Travancore, Moolam Thirunal Rama Varma sanctioned the monthly grant of Rs. 50.00 for its functioning. The renowned epigraphist T. A. Gopinatha Rao was employed as first Superintendent in the year 1908. T.A. Gopinatha Rao edited and published The Travancore Archaeological Series (T.A.S.) from 1910. Thus T.A.S. inaugurated the systematic survey and collection of inscriptions in the erstwhile Travancore state. The scholar also visited Thirunandhikarai and Chitharal caves in 1920-21 and copied and recorded the inscriptions from the caves. .According to T.A.Gopinatha Rao, the cave temple was built during the reign of the king Vikramaditya Varaguna. Chitharal was erected at Tirucharanam at the behest of a Jain priestess called Muttavala Naranakuttiyar, who also presented the temple a metallic lamp stand and a golden flower. Rao also believed that Thirunandhikkarai rock cut cave was excavated by Vikramaditya Varaguna, the Ay ruler in 9th century A.D in simple Pandya style. The rock cut caves were the founding caves of Jainism. Thirunandhikarai cave also served as dwelling place to Jain ascetic Veeranandi, who came from Thirunarunkondai Melappalli and preached Jainism during 8th century. One more cave temple Kurathiarai was also excavated in the ninth century when this region was under the influence of Jainism. Thirunandhikarai rock cut cave is under the maintenance of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).</span></span></div>
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<b style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Inscriptions:</b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">This cave has four Vattezhuthu (வட்டெழுத்து) inscriptions (Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) vol. I., p. 413.) inscribed one on each side of the entrance and others on each side of the pillars. One of which bears the name of the ruler and his regnal year. The inscription, dated in the 18th regnal year of Rajaraja Chola I (முதலாம் இராஜராஜ சோழன்) found on the western cave wall, registers the gift of Muttom (முட்டம்), the village (name changed as Mummudi-chola-nallur மும்முடிச்சோழநல்லூர்) in Valluva-nadu (வள்ளுவநாடு) under Rajaraja-thennadu (இராஜராஜ தென்னாடு). The gift was made for the celebration of a festival for Mahadeva of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரை மகாதேவர்) and also for ablution of the deity in the river, on the Satabhisha, star (சதய நட்சத்திரம்) day in the Tamil month Aippasi, (ஐப்பசி) (October - November) in the year </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; line-height: normal;">1003 A.D, </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">being the birthday of the king. Records a provision made by the king for supply of one nazhi (நாழி) measure ghee every day for lighting the perpetual lamp in the name of Rajaraja Chola I in the temple.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 26.6667px;"><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";">Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, p. 206 </span></span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">r</span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">ecords gift of nine buffalo(s) for the </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">provision of burning a perpetual lamp with one uri measure ghee each day for </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Tirunandikarai</span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"> </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Lord </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">by Ainurruva Mutharaiyan alias Sithakutti Ambi of Veikottumalai under Nanjilnadu and the buffalo(s) were handed-over to Idayarmangalavan Pavithiran, an official serving under the village </span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">elders</span><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"> (sabha). The inscription commences with these words 'the year of annihilation weaponry in Karaikanda Eswaram <span style="font-family: inherit;">(</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">‘கறைக்கண்ட ஈசுவரத்துக் கலமறுத்த யாண்டு’)</span></span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;"> refering the date of inscription. According to Gopinatha Rao, the temple 'Karaikanda Eswaram' is the saivite temple located near Katikaipattinam in Eranial taluk. The inscription was inscribed</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;"> in an year when the Chera war-ships were destroyed </span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;">in Karaikanda Eswaram.</span><span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial"; line-height: 26.6667px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, pp. 200-203 inscribed on a pillar, whose date assignable to eight century A.D., records the gift of 'Ur' (ஊர்-a village). For this purpose one Dhaliyazhavan (தளியாழ்வான்), along with the 'elders' of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரை பெருமக்கள்) assembled in Kurunthambakkam (குருந்தம்பாக்கம்). The assembly converted the Ur's name into Sri Nandimangalam and gifted to one Nambi Ganapathi (நம்பி கணபதி) for purposes of mid-night offerings (நள்ளிரவுத் திருவமுது) to the Lord of the temple. The four boundaries (எல்லைகள்) are cited for the village under gift and include a river (name not known) (ஒரு பெயரற்ற ஆறு), Nandhi river (நந்தியாறு), Mudukonur (முதுகோனூர்) and Pakkamangalam (பாக்கமங்கலம்). Gopinatha Rao, who copied and recorded the inscription, has pointed out the present existence of Mudukonur and Pakkamangalam near Nandhimangalam.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Inscription Travancore Archaeological Series (T. A. S.) Vol. III, pp. 203-206 comprising 40 lines was inscribed on another pillar. This inscription records the gift of land by Mangalacheri Narayanan Sivakaran to Tiruvallavazh Mahadevar of Tirunandikarai (திருநந்திக்கரையில் உறையும் திருவல்லவாழ் மகாதேவர்). The inscription lists out the land pieces. Resolved the wages to be issued from the land produce accrued from the above land: four measures (கலம் Kalam) to Santhipuram, five measures (கலம் Kalam) to Uvachar (category of temple staff), five measures (கலம் Kalam) to Udayar (category of temple staff) and cleaning staff as well as for puja rituals, The perpetual lamps were lit using 60 measures (uri - உரி) of ghee from the remaining land produce. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;"><b>How to get there?</b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Road Transport : Thirunandhikarai and its nearest town Kulasekaram are well connected from Thirvananthapuram or Kovalam Beach or Kanyakumari. You can get busses from Nagercoil, Thuckalay, Marthandam, Kulasekaram. Kerala Tourism Development Corporation (KTDC) organizes local site seeing tours. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Nearest Railway Station is Marthandam. Nagerkoil railway station is 15 km away. Kanyakumari railway station is connects with major cities in India.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "latha" , "tscu_paranar" , "theneeunitx" , "arial";"><span style="line-height: 26.6667px;">Nearest Airport is Trivandrum International Airport.</span></span></div>
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<b>Reference</b></div>
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<ol style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">
<li>A topographical list of the inscriptions of the Madras presidency (collected till 1915) with notes and references by Rangacharya, V. (Vijayaraghava); Archaeological Survey of India 1919</li>
<li>Kerala State Archaeology Department (Wikipedia)</li>
<li>On the southern tip of India, a village steeped in the past. The Hindu November 17, 2011</li>
<li>Thirunandikkara Cave Temple in Thirparappu in Kanyakumari. Yatra to Temples.com (http://www.yatrastotemples.com/thirunandikkara-cave-temple-in-thirparappu-in-kanyakumari/)</li>
<li>Thirunanthikarai (Wikipedia)</li>
<li>Thirunanthikarai Cave Temple. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai. (http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/ThirunanthikaraiCaveTemple_2939.aspx)</li>
<li>Thirunanthikarai Cave Temple. Tourmet.com (http://tourmet.com/thirunandhikarai-cave-temple/)</li>
<li>Thirunanthikarai inscription. Kerala Culture.org (http://www.keralaculture.org/thirunanthikara-inscriptions/366)</li>
<li>திருநந்திக்கரைக் குடைவரை இரா.கலைக்கோவன், மு.நளினி வரலாறு.காம் இதழ் 63 (செப்டம்பர் 15 - அக்டோபர் 15, 2009)</li>
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iramuthusamy@gmail.comhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06984895501704670109noreply@blogger.com1Kulasekharam Bus Stand, SH 90, Kulasekharam, Tamil Nadu 629161, India8.3796144 77.296907899999951-21.868442100000003 35.988313899999952 38.6276709 118.60550189999995