Chola Temples

 

Vijayalaya Choleeswaram, Narthamalai, Pudukkottai District Rebuilt by Vijayalaya Chola

Muvar Koil, Pudukkottai District, Paranthaka II

Srinivasanallur, Koraganathar Temple, Trichy District Paranthaka I

Darasuram Airavatesvara (Raja Rajeswaram) Temple , Kumbakonam - Rajaraja Chola II

Pullamangai Brahmapurirswarar, Thanjavur District, Paranthaga Chola I

Cholas built many temples all over Tamil Nadu.I am trying to map these temples with the Chola kings who built or rebuilt these temples based on the available inscriptions.

EARLY CHOLA PERIOD

Aditya Chola

1. Thirupparaithurai Tharugavaneswarar, Trichy – Aditya Chola
2. Kumaravayalur Tirukattrali Parameswarar, Trichy – Aditya Chola
3. Thiruvidaimaruthur Mahalingar, Kumbakonam – Aditya Chola
4. Nemam Airavateswarar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
5. Thillaisthanam Neyyadiappar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
6. Thiruchottruthurai Othavaneswarar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
7. Thirupponthuruthi Pasbavaneswarar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
8. Thiruvedikudi Vedapureeswarar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
9. Thirupazhanam Abathsahayeeswarar, Thanjavur – Aditya Chola
10. Kudanthai Nageeswarar, Kumbakonam – Aditya Chola
11. Thiruvayaru Panchnadeeswarar, Thiruvaiyaru – Aditya Chola
12. Thirukattalai Sundreeshwarar, Pudukottai – Aditya Chola
13. Thirukattupalli Agneeshwarar, Thiruvaiyaru – Aditya Chola
14. Keelayur Thenvayil Sreekoil, Nagapattinam – Aditya Chola
15. Lalgudi Sapthareeshwarar, Lalgudi, Trichy – Aditya Chola
16. Thirupurambiyam Satchinathar, Kumbakonam – Aditya Chola
17. Thiruerumbiyur Erumbeeswarar, Thiruverumbur, Trichy – Aditya Chola
18. Thiruchendurai Chandrasekarar, Trichy – Aditya Chola
19. The Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam, Mandya district, Karnataka - Aditya Chola I
20. Nageswaran Temple, Kumbakonam - Aditya Chola I
21. Thirukadambatturai Udaiya Mahadevar (Matsyapurisvarar temple), Tudaiyar, Trichy - Aditya Chola I
    
     Paranthaka Chola I 

1. Uyyakondan Thirumalai Ujjivaneeswarar, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
2. Nangavaram Sundareeswarar, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
3. Andanallur Thiru Alanthurai Mahadevar or Vada Tirthanathar, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
4. Sithalingamadam Viyakrabatheeswarar, Villupuram - Paranthaga Chola I
5. Thiruvettriyur Adheepureeswarar, Chennai - Paranthaga Chola I
6. Madhuranthagam Sivan and Visnu koil, Kanchipuram - Paranthaga Chola I
7. Thiruvamathur Abirameswarar or Nandieswarar, Villupuram - Paranthaga Chola I
8. Kattumannarkudi Viranarayana Vinnagar, Chidambaram - Paranthaga Chola I
9. Erumbur Kadamabavaneeswarar, Cuddalore - Paranthaga Chola I
10. Cholapuram Sivan Koil, Perambalur - Paranthaga Chola I
11. Pullamangai Brahmapurirswarar,Papanasam, Thanjavur - Paranthaga Chola I
12. Thiruchennampoondi Sadayari, Thanjavur - Paranthaga Chola I
13. Thirunamanallur Tiruthondeeswarar, Tiruvannamalai - Paranthaga Chola I
14. Thiruvaduthurai Komuktheswarar, Nagapattinam - Paranthaga Chola I
15. Alambakkam Kailasanathar, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
16. Thirukandiyur Virattaneswarar, Thanjavur - Paranthaga Chola I
17. Thirupalthurai Adimuleswarar, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
18. Srinivasanallur Koranganathar, Musiri, Trichy - Paranthaga Chola I
19. Valikandapuram Valikandeswarar, Veppanthattai, Perambalur - Paranthaga Chola I
20. Thiruvalanchuzhi Temple, Tanjore District, Near Kumbakonam - Paranthaga Chola I
21. Tirumalpur, Vellore – Paranthaga Chola I
    
    
    Sundara Chola / Uthama Chola

1. Ponsei Nalthunaieswarar, Mayiladuthurai - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
2. Perungudi Agastheeswarar, Trichy - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
3. Konerirajapuram UmaMaheswarar, Mayiladuthurai - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
4. Thirukodikaval Sivan Koil, Mayiladuthurai - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
5. Karunthittaikudi Vasisteshwarar, Thanjavur - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
6. Anangur Sivan Koil, Namakkal - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
7. Thirunaraiyur Sithanathaswamy,Kumbakonam - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
8. Courtallam Soleeswarar, Kanchipuram - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
9. Koviladi Divyaganeeswarar, Trichy - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
10. Thodaiyur Bishamanganeeswarar,Pudukottai - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
11. Thirunageswararm Nageswarar, Kumbakonam - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
12. Sembianmadevi Kailasanathar, Thiruvarur - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
13. Thirukarugavur Sivan Koil, Thanjavur - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
14. Govindaputhur Gangasadatharar, Ariyalur - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
15. Kilapazhuvur Alandurayar, Ariyalur - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
16. Kodumbalur Thaligal, Pudukottai - Sundra Chola / Uthama Chola
    
    
    MEDIEVAL CHOLA PERIOD
    
    
    Rajaraja Chola I

1. The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur - Rajaraja Chola I
2. Masilamaneeswarar temple, Utatur(Urrattur), Padalur, Trichy - Rajaraja Chola I 
3. Parameeswarar temple, Thirumangalam, Lalgudi, Trichy - Rajaraja Chola I
4. Kuganathaswamy Temple, Kanyakumari – Rajaraja Chola I 
5. Melpadi Samathi Koil, Vellore – Rajara Chola I
6. Narasimmaswamy, Ennairam, Villupuram – Rajaraja Chola I 
7. Kamarasavalli, Ariyalur – Rajaraja Chola I 
8. Adhi Lakshmi temple, Natham, Lalgudi, Trichy - Rajaraja Chola I and Kulothunga III 
9. Virinjipuram, Vellore – Rajaraja I and Kulothunga Chola I
10. Tiruvalisvaram temple near Tirunelveli – Rajaraja Chola I / Rajendra Chola I
11. Vaidyanatha Temple at Tirumalavadi – Rajaraja Chola I / Rajendra Chola I
12. Uttara Kailasa Temple at Thanjavur – Rajaraja Chola I / Rajendra Chola I
    
    
    Rajendra Chola I 

1. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram - Rajendra Chola I
2. Dharasuram,, Thanjavur – Rajendra Chola I 
3. Bala Subramaniyar Koil, Theni – Rajendra Chola I
4. Ramanatheeswarar koil, Esalam, Villupuram – Rajendra Chola I
   
   
   LATER CHOLA PERIOD
    
   Rajaraja Chola II 

1. The Airavatesvara(Raja Rajeswaram) Temple at Darasuram, Kumbakonam - Rajaraja Chola II
2. Apradeeswara Temple- Nagar, Lalgudi - Rajaraja Chola II
   
    

1. Karakoil at Melakkadambur - Kulothunga Chola I
2. Amirthakateshwarar Temple, Melakadambur, Chidambaram - Kulothunga Chola I
3. Kambhareeswarar Temple, Thirubuvanam, Thanjavur District -  Kulothunga Chola I
4. Tirupuvanam, Thanjavur – Kulothunga Chola I

1. Jambukeswarar Temple, Thiruvanaikaval, Trichy - Kocengannan (Kochenga Chola)
2. Vekkaliamman Koil, Uraiyur, Trichy - Kochenga Chola

1. Agasteeswarar temple, Perungudi, Trichy - Sundara Chola
2. Nandhikeswarar, Thuriyur, Trichy - Sundara Chola

1. Achaleeswaram temple, Tiruvarur - Sembian Mahadevi, 10 the century
2. Tirunallam Temple(Gandaradityam) – Sembian Mahadevi
3. Kailasanathaswamy Temple, Sembianmadevi – Sembian Mahadevi
   
   
   CHOLA TEMPLES REBUILT 

1. Vijayalaya Choleeswaram, Naaratahamalai, Pudukottai District - Rebuilt by Vijayalaya Chola I
2. Thiruvalithayam - Padi, Chennai - Rajaraja Chola III
3. Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram - Rajendra Chola II 
4. Muvar Koil, Pudukottai - Parantaka II
5. Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam near Kumbakonam - Kulothunga Chola III
6. Kailasmudaiyar temple, Cholamadevi, Thiruverumbur, Trichy - Virarajendra Chola
7. Patteswarar Temple, Perur, Coimbatore – Karikala Perivalanam 
8. Tirunageeswaram, Tanjavur – Gandaraditya Chola 
9. Maada Kovil, Uraiyur, Trichy – Sengan Chola 
10. Tirupachur, Tiruthani, Chennai – Karikalan Chola 
11. Thiyagarajar Temple, Tiruvarur - Muchukanta Chola
12. Sri Pundarikashan Perumal Temple, Thiruvellarai - Sibi Chakravarthy

1. Annamalaiyar Temple, Thiruvannamalai - 9th century Chola king
2. Erumbeeswarar temple, Thiruverumbur, Trichy - Early Chola kings 
3. Amaleesvarar Temple, Gopurapatti, Tiruvassi, Trichy - Early Cholas
4. Vada Tirthanathar temple, Andavanallur, Trichy - Early Cholas
5. Sundareswarar temple, Paluvur, Karur-Trichy road - Early Cholas
6. Ekambareswarar Temple, Chidambaram - Rebuilt by Chola kings
7. Kasi viswanathar temple, Thirupattur, Siruganur, Trichy - Unknown Chola king 
8. Muchukondeeswarar, Kodumbalur, Pudukottai – Unknown Chola king
9. Kangeeswarar Koil, Kangaya Nallur, Vellore – Unknown Chola king
10. Tiruvakarai, Villupuram – Unknown Chola King
11. Tiruvamathur, Villupuram – Unknown Chola King
12. Thirutanthoneeswarar, Uraiyur, Trichy – Unknown Chola king
13. Sri Ranganatha temple at Srirangam- Unknown Chola king according to Legend
14. Thayinum Nalla Iswaram - Aaragalur, Perambalur District, Near Arumbavur - Vana Kovaraiyan, A Chola subsidiary
    
    Posted by Chennaitian  in Blogspot.Chennaitian on Thursday, July 7, 2011

Kirtimukha Motif in Temple Architecture

Temple Vimanam

Kirtimukha at the Nasika of Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple Tower Madurai

Kirtimukha above a Hindu temple entrance in Kathmandu, Nepal (Wikipedia)

Kirtimukha at Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Gadag district, Karnataka, India (Wikipedia)

Kirtimukha in Rock cut Ratha

Kirtimukha on the Vimana (Exterior wall)

Kirtimukha at the Adhishtana

Kirtimukha on Pillar Capitals

Kirtimukha at the top of the metallic arch structure over the deity (Thiruvachi)

Jewelry Pattern showing Kirtimukha

Have you come across in many Indian Hindu temples over the lintel arch (torana) of the inner sanctum entrance or the ramparts, nasikas of the temple tower, kapotas, dormer arches, at the top of the metallic arch structure over the deity (Thiruvachi)  the monstrous disembodied head with swallowing fierce face with decorative line of triform arch representing the eye-brows, narrow forehead, protruding eyeballs,   two horns with fanciful shape, erect ears of the lion, thick moustache, bulged cheeks, grooved and sharp  fangs, the rows of gory teeth, wide open mouth and protruding tongue? You might have wondered how this seeming incongruity came to adorn the inner entrance of sanctum. The Hindu iconography represents Kirtimukha aka Kirttimukha (Sanskrit terminology: 'Kirti' means glory or fame and 'Mukha' means face) with opposite meaning, 'the glorious face.' The Southeast Asian tradition represent it as 'Kala' and the Chinese iconography discern it as  T'ao t'ieh (Monster of Greed).

In Skanda Purana, the ancient Hindu mythological tale of Lord Subramanya, Lord Shiva created  from His 'Third Eye' an all-devouring monster to destroy  Jalandhara, the powerful king of the Daityas. The monster was roaring like thunder.It was in intense hunger and prayed the Lord for food. Lord Shiva instructed the monster to appease its hunger by devouring its own body commencing from its tail. The monster finished eating its own body leaving only its face in tact. The monster's face with sanguinary appearance impressed Lord Shiva and preferred to call it as Kirti Muka aka 'Face of Glory.' Lord Shiva ordained to represent 'Kirtimukha' at the lintel of the sanctum of the Lord. The Lord also noted that whosoever worship the Kirtimukha would acquire the benevolent grace of the Lord.

Due to this reason Indian Manual of Hindu Architectural texts like 'Manasara' have prescribed it, and the sculptors, wood carvers and painters used to  represent Kirtimukha as a decorative motif. The motif often find its place on the lintels of the gate of the inner sanctum,  at the corners of the pillars and pilasters, surmounting the pinnacle of a temple tower or vimana or in the iconography of an Hindu deity. Often the image of the Kirtimukha resembles the monstrous lion's face engaged in swallowing some object with bulging eyes and protruding tongue and gory teeth.

Earliest Kirtimukhas in India are demonic in forms.In western India this motif is understood as 'Grasamukha'and Rahu-mukha in eastern parts of India and 'Kala' in in South East Asian Countries. Also known as Simha-mukha in some other parts. Medieval Maurian (Indian) artists represented kirtimukhas as stylised lion's face on pillar capitals. The research has identified the presence of similar decorative motifs in Scythian, Helenic, Chinese art traditions.  Traditionally Kirtimukhas are believed to be warding the edifices off the evil and destroyers. The Kirtimukha motif was often used as a decorative motif surmounting nasikas of the temple tower or or at the top of the metallic arch structure over the deity (Thiruvachi). At the beginning our temple architecture widely used in the  "chaitya" arch with a "kirtimukha" above it. It is very popular in Hoysala temples and others. The motif was profusely used as sculptural decorations, where the artist wants to show strings, foliage or festoons issuing from its mouth, till 14th century. After the use of this motif was occasional used. In Gujarat people pay much respect to this motif when they are about to cross the thresholds of the sanctum and even sprinkle scented water while making entry.

Sangam Anthologies (சங்க இலக்கிய நூல்கள்): Vaidhehi Herbert Translated 12 out 18 Anthologies in English

Mrs. Vaidhehi Herbert from Hawai, USA

Mrs. Vaidhehi Herbert with Mr.Herbert

Vaidhehi Herbert, a Tamil scholar from Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) and at present she lives in Hawai, USA. She has translated 12 out of 18   anthologies of Sangam literature into English.   - body of Tamil classical  literature created between the years c. 600 BCE to 300 CE - i.e, The Major Eighteen Anthology Series (பதினெண்மேல்கணக்கு) comprising The Eight Anthologies (எட்டுத்தொகை) and the Ten Idylls (பத்துப்பாட்டு). The books are published through Konrai Publication. The English translated titles, Mullaipattau (முல்லைப்பாட்டு) and Nedunalvadai (நெடுநெல்வாடை), were reviewed and certified by Dr. George Hart, American Tamil and Sanskrit scholar, Tamil professor at University of California at Berkeley, California, U.S.A. Similarly the translated title Pathirrupathu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) was reviewed and certified by Dr. Takanobu Takahashi, Japanese Tamil and Sanskrit Scholar. The Tamil Literary Garden, a Canadian literary organization and charity, has aptly honoured  Vaidhehi Herbert with Tamil Translation award in 2012. The Canadian University also  honoured her with an award and recognized her immense contribution to Tamil Literature. The author has plans to translate the remaining six more anthologies within 2014. However she also convinced that the translations will not be commercially beneficial to her.

The author don't like claim herself either as a poet or a language scholar and she is 'simply passionate and disciplined.' Over the last three years the author showed much dedication in studying Tamil and kept her engaged in translating number of Tamil Sangam poems into English. She has approached and learned  Mullaippaatu, an anthology from Dr. Rukmani Ramachandran, Assistant Professor of Tamil, Queen Mary's College, Chennai. She has undertaken the mammoth task of translation of 12 Sangam Tamil anthologies on her own and she never expected any aid from any government or other institutions. She has co-authored three books with Dr. Rukmani Ramachandran. She has also compiled the dictionary for terminology of Sangam Tamil anthologies. She is also prepared to teach the Tamil loving public on Sangam Tamil literature either in person or over phone. For this purposes she has also developed 20 web sites to enable online instruction and to encourage distance learning.

Anyone interested in learning more about Sangam poetry is encouraged to visit Herbert’s main websites at http://sangampoemsinenglish.wordpress.com and www.learnsangamtamil.com.


Reference:

1. Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidhehi Herbert http://sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi.com/
2. Tamil Bookstore http://www.tamilbookstore.in/
3. The Tamil Literary Garden (Wikipedia)
4. சங்கத் தமிழை மொழிபெயர்ப்பதில் பல சவால்கள்
   http://www.bbc.co.uk/tamil/multimedia/2013/06/130616_vaidehiaudio.shtml

Vaidehi Herbert Hawaii USA Sanga Ilakkiyam (YouTube)

சங்க இலக்கியம்

இணையத்தில் சங்க இலக்கிய பதிவுகள்
சங்க இலக்கியம் போற்றும் வேதங்கள் -தமிழர் சமுதாயம்.   தமிழ்த் தொகுப்புகள் August 26, 2012 ankaraikrishnan
சங்க இலக்கியம் காட்டும் வாழ்வியல் சிந்தனை – ஜெ. சந்திரசேகரன் தமிழ்த் தொகுப்புகள் ஜனவரி 29, 2011 சங்க இலக்கியம் காட்டும் சிந்தனைகள் வாழ்வியலை வளப்படுத்தும் என்பது திண்ணம்.
சங்க இலக்கிய மகளிர்: விறலியர் மு. இளநங்கை திண்ணை தமிழிலக்கியங்களில் சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் மட்டும்தான் சில பெண்கவிஞர்கள் உள்ளனர்...
முத்தொள்ளாயிரத்தில் யானைகள் மாயக்கூத்தன்  சொல்வனம் இதழ் 60  26-11-2011 முத்தொள்ளாயிரம் பாடல்களில் நமக்கு கிடைத்திருப்பவை வெறும் 108 பாடல்கள் மட்டுமே. அந்த நூற்றியெட்டில் 33 பாடல்களில் யானைகள் பேசப்படுகின்றன.
சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் சிந்து சமவெளித் தொடர்பு ஆர்.பாலகிருஷ்ணன், அய்.ஏ.எஸ் உண்மை சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் மூன்று இடங்களில் கவரி பற்றி வரும். கவரி என்ற ஒரு விலங்கைப் பற்றி. .. பெண்கள் வைத்துக்கொள்கிற அந்த சவரி முடிதான் கவரி.. மா என்பது விலங்கு. கவரி மா-_ன்னுதான் சொல்வார். கவரிமான் என்று சொல்லவில்லை.
சங்க இலக்கியம் குறிப்பிடும் கடற்கொள்ளையர்கள் யார்? மு.இளங்கோவன்  தேவர் தளம் கடம்பர்கள் என்பவர்கள் கடலிடை உள்ள தீவுகளை வாழிடமாகக் கொண்டு அவ்வழிச் செல்லும் கலங்களைக்(கப்பல்களை) கொள்ளையடிப்பதை வழக்கமாகக் கொண்டிருந்தனர். இக் கொடியவர்களால் தம் நாட்டில் நடைபெற்று வந்த கடல்வணிகம் பாதிக்கப்பட்டதை அறிந்த இமயவரம்பன் அக்கடம்பர் பகுதி மீது(அரபிக்கடல் பகுதியில்)படையெடுத்தான்.
சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் நுண்கலைகள் ரா. பூங்குன்றன் செம்மொழி. தமிழ் இலக்கியத்தில் நுண்கலைப் பொருட்கள் பற்றிய செய்திகள் மிகுந்து  கிடைக்கின்றன. வளை, மணிகள் கோத்த ஆரங்கள், மணிகள் கோத்த மேகலை, சிலம்பு, போன்ற கலைப்பொருட்கள் நுண்கலைப் பிரிவில் அடக்கலாம். சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் போகிற போக்கில் உவமைகளாகவும், உருவகங்களாகவும் கூறப்பெறும்போது இத்தகைய நுண்கலைப் பொருட்கள் குறிக்கப்பெறுகின்றன.
சங்க இலக்கியத்தில் வானியல் தமிழ்மணி   Spottamil  தமிழரின் வானியல் அறிவு இன்றைய அறிவுசார் உலகுக்கு ஒரு முன்னோடி என்பதில் ஐயமில்லை

தமிழ் மின்னகராதிகள்

தமிழ் மின்னகராதிகள்

ஆங்கிலம் தமிழ் சிங்களம் மின்னகராதி என்பது ஆங்கிலச் சொற்களுக்கு ஈடான தமிழ், சிங்கள சொற்களை வழங்கும் ஒரு இணைய மின்னகராதி. இது கப்ருகா நிறுவனத்தால் (kapruka) இலவசமாக தரப்பட்டுள்ளது.

தமிழ் இணையப் பல்கலைக்கழகம் கலைச்சொற்கள் என்பது தமிழ் துறைசார் கலைச்சொற்களின் மின்னகராதி. பல்வேறு இடங்களில் தொகுக்கப்பட்ட கலைச்சொற்கள் பட்டியல்களாக இங்கு கிடைக்கின்றன. இந்த கலைச்சொற்கள் தானியங்கி மூலம் தமிழ் விக்சனரியிலும் சேர்க்கப்பட்டுள்ளன.

தமிழ் விக்சனரி என்பது சொற்களுக்கான பொருள், அவற்றின் மூலம், உச்சரிப்பு, எடுத்துக்காட்டு வாக்கியங்கள் தொடர்கள் முதலியவற்றை உள்ளடக்கிய, கட்டற்ற பன்மொழி அகரமுதலியொன்றைக் கூட்டு முயற்சியில் உருவாக்கும் ஒரு திட்டமாகும். தமிழ்-தமிழ், ஆங்கிலம்-தமிழ், தமிழ்-ஆங்கிலம் மட்டும் அல்லாமல் பிரன்சிய மொழி, சிங்களம், மலேய மொழி போன்ற பிற மொழிச் சொற்களிலும் இதில் விளக்கம் பெற முடியும்.

தமிழ் பதிவுகள்

தமிழ் மின்னகராதிகள்

Ninety Nine Flowers from Kurincippattu Sangam Age Tamil poetic work: Slide Show

Here is the slideshow of 99 Flowers with pictures mentioned in Tamil Literature on 100 BCE-100 CE, with their botanical name

99 Tamil Flowers from Palaniappan Vairam Sarathy

Kurincippattu (Tamil: குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு) is a Tamil poetic work of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 100 BCE – 100 CE.  ”Kurincippattu” describes the kurinchi landscape of the mountainous terrain and mentions almost 100 different plant names along side the main storyline of the  the love affair between the hero and the heroine. The poems were written by the poet Kapilar. Below are the lines from Kurunjippaatu

வள் இதழ்
ஒண் செங் காந்தள், ஆம்பல், அனிச்சம்,
தண் கயக் குவளை, குறிஞ்சி, வெட்சி,
செங் கொடுவேரி, தேமா, மணிச்சிகை,
உரிது நாறு அவிழ் தொத்து உந்தூழ், கூவிளம்,  65
எரி புரை எறுழம், சுள்ளி, கூவிரம்,
வடவனம், வாகை, வான் பூங் குடசம்,
எருவை, செருவிளை, மணிப் பூங் கருவிளை,
பயினி, வானி, பல் இணர்க் குரவம்,
பசும்பிடி, வகுளம், பல் இணர்க் காயா,  70
விரி மலர் ஆவிரை, வேரல், சூரல்,
குரீஇப் பூளை, குறுநறுங் கண்ணி,
குருகிலை, மருதம், விரி பூங் கோங்கம்,
போங்கம், திலகம், தேங் கமழ் பாதிரி,
செருந்தி, அதிரல், பெருந் தண் சண்பகம்,  75
கரந்தை, குளவி, கடி கமழ் கலி மா,
தில்லை, பாலை, கல் இவர் முல்லை,
குல்லை, பிடவம், சிறுமாரோடம்,
வாழை, வள்ளி, நீள் நறு நெய்தல்,
தாழை, தளவம், முள் தாள் தாமரை,  80
ஞாழல், மௌவல், நறுந் தண் கொகுடி,
சேடல், செம்மல், சிறுசெங்குரலி,
கோடல், கைதை, கொங்கு முதிர் நறு வழை,
காஞ்சி, மணிக் குலைக் கள் கமழ் நெய்தல்,
பாங்கர், மராஅம், பல் பூந் தணக்கம்,  85
ஈங்கை, இலவம், தூங்கு இணர்க் கொன்றை,
அடும்பு, அமர் ஆத்தி, நெடுங் கொடி அவரை,
பகன்றை, பலாசம், பல் பூம் பிண்டி,
வஞ்சி, பித்திகம், சிந்துவாரம்,
தும்பை, துழாஅய், சுடர்ப் பூந் தோன்றி,  90
நந்தி, நறவம், நறும் புன்னாகம்,
பாரம், பீரம், பைங் குருக்கத்தி,
ஆரம், காழ்வை, கடி இரும் புன்னை,
நரந்தம், நாகம், நள்ளிருள் நாறி,
மா இருங் குருந்தும், வேங்கையும், பிறவும்,  95
அரக்கு விரித்தன்ன பரு ஏர்அம் புழகுடன்,

Source and Courtesy : KarkaNirka.org , Wikipedia

 

Indo Saracenic Architectural Structures in Madras during British India

Indo Saracenic architecture or Indo Saracenic Revival architecture (also known as Indo-Gothic, Hindu-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal architecture) denotes the fusion of  Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture. Indo Saracenic is an abosrption of exotic elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture, and fusing it with the  Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favored in Victorian Britain. Indo Saracenic architecture is the brilliant architectural engineering movement by the British architects in the late 19th century in British India.

Terminolgy of Saracen: "Saracen" is an adaptation of a Greek word, sarakenoi, meaning "people who live in tents";  that is, Arabs. The word Saracen was employed by  Greek and Latin to refer people who lived in desert areas in and near the Roman province of Arabia, and who were specifically distinguished from Arabs. During medieval era Europeans denoted Muslims as Saracens. Over a period of time  "Saracen" had become synonymous with "Muslim."

History: Before 1857 the British rulers in India applied Gothic Revival architecture incorporating Greek and Roman features such as columns, triangular pediments for the public building in India. The main reason for the adoption of this classical style for the British rulers was to retain the image as the holder of power and status and to distance themselves from the native Indians. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857 and this 'Revolt of 1857' compelled the Britishers to legitimize their rule and to establish confidence from the natives  of the colonized land. The rulers also began to understand that India had an architectural history that was as deep as it was complicated. James Ferguson, an historian of Indian architecture, categorized and evaluated Indian architecture and buildings based on their characteristics and proposed his conclusion stating that Indian architecture sporadically went into diminution and therefore need to be revived by British. The British government in India also  encouraged a new generation of British architects to experiment with the style known as Indo Saracenic. 

The architectural deigns of British buildings, monuments, forts etc. in the post-Renaissance period formed the inspiration for the British architects. They built the public buildings in India as per advanced British structural engineering standards of the 1800's and used iron, steel and poured concrete. Table 1. details the Chief proponents (British architects) of this style of architecture , their practice and career in British India (appointments) and the noteworthy Indo Saracenic monuments designed by them in Madras (Chennai) as well as outside Madras (Chennai).

Table 1. British Architects Designed Key Indo-Saracenic Monuments in Chennai

S.No	Architect	Appointments	Buildings	Image
1.	Paul Benfield (1742–1810)	Architect	Chepauk Palace
2.	Robert Fellowes Chisholm (1840 - 1915)	Consulting Architect to the Government of Madras	Revenue board building in the Chepauk Palace complex (1871); Presidency College, Madras (1867–70); the Senate buildings of the University of Madras (1874–79); P. Orr & Sons; Post and Telegraph Office G.P.O (1875–84); pavilion at the M. A. Chidambaram Stadium. Out of Chennai: Lawrence Asylum buildings (1865); Napier Museum Trivandrum;	.
3.	J.W. Brassington	Consulting Architect to the Government of Madras	Madras High Court, Chennai (1892)	.
4.	Henry Irwin	Public Works Department (PWD), Madras	Within Chennai: Government Museum, Chennai; National Art Gallery (the Victoria Technical Institute's Memorial Hall) (1906); Law College Buildings, Chennai (1894); Headquarters of the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway (now Southern Railway), Chennai; Madras High Court, Chennai (1892); Headquarters of the State Bank of Madras (now State Bank of India), Chennai (1896); The Hindu Higher Secondary School, Chennai; the Egmore Railway Station for the South Indian Railway (1902), Outside Chennai: Amba Vilas, the Maharaja's palace in Mysore; Chennai Central Railway Terminus, Chennai; Viceregal Lodge, Shimla (present: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla); The American College, Madurai; Gaiety Theatre, Shimla	.
5.	Sir (Col.) Samuel Swinton Jacob	Indian Army officer; Bombay Staff Corps (PWD); Chief engineer, Jaipur state (Rajasthan)	Bank of Madras (SBI HQ), Chennai; Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur (1880 - 1887 ); Jaipur Gate, 1886 ; Jubilee Buildings, Jodhpur, 1887–96; Bikaner House, Mount Abu. (1893); Laxmi Niwas Palace and Lalgarh Palace,Bikaner (1896-1902 & 1902 - 1926); Umed Bhawan Palace, Kota. (1904); King George Medical College (University), Lucknow (1905); Rambagh Palace, (1905 - 1916); Daly College, Indore (1912)

Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period. Table 2 details the Gothic Byzantine architectural features absorbed into Indo Saracenic Architectural form.

Table 2: Gothic & Byzantine Architectural Features included in Indo Saracenic Architectural Form
Sl.No.	Gothic and Byzantine Architectural Features	Description	Image
1	Gothic Dome	Bulbous, onion like roofs with a pointed projection;	Madras High Court
2	Byzantine Dome;	Byzantine or Later Roman architecture  increased in geometric complexity with complex domes	Byzantine Dome. Seanate House, Univ. of Madras, Chepauk, Chennai
3	Stained Glass Window;	stained glass refers to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Design of window may be abstract or figurative or thematic; may incorporate narratives or themes drawn from the Bible, history, literature, arts and sciences; flora, fauna, or landscape	Stained Glass Window. Connemera Public Library, Chennai.
4	Cusped Arch	Cusped arch: In Gothic architecture Cusoed Arch is an arch incorporating the shape or outline of a trefoil — three or quatrefoil or four overlapping rings.	Cupsed Arches
4	Spire	In Gothic architecture a spire is the tall pointed roof of a tower or the tall pointed structure on top of a steeple.  The simple, pointed four-sided pyramidal roof or roof- like construction upon a tower. Spires may be octagonal or square and may include broaches, gabled dormers (spire faces), steep pinnacles (corners).	Spire. Central Railway Station
6	Minarets;	In Gothic architecture minaret is generally a tall spire with an onion-shaped or conical crown, usually either free standing or taller than associated support structure. The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery. Styles vary regionally and by period.	Minarets

Table 3: Native Architectural Features in Indo Saracenic Architectural Form
Sl.No.	Native Indian Architectural Features	Description	Image
1	Onion (bulbous) domes	Bulbous, onion like roofs with a pointed projection;	Madras High Court
2	Vaulted roofs;		Vaulted Roof: Dome with intersecting arches from the inside @  Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur, Karnataka, India.
3	Pointed arches or scalloped arches;		Pointed arches or scalloped arches:  Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal Palace, Madurai, India.
4	Open pavilions;		Bhadon Pavilion, Red Fort, Delhi
5	Pavilion with Bangla roofs;
6	Pierced open arcading and harem windows;		South Park Street Cemetery - Calcutta
7	Doomed kiosks	Indigeniously called chhattris; supported by four columns; largely used to lend visual symmetry;	Chhatris mounted atop each corner of the Diwan-i-Khas in the Fatehpur Sikri
8	Towers/Minarets	Tall spires with a conical crown; provide a visual focal point. Also functional in air conditioning mechanism;
9	Overhanging Eaves	Protruding edge of roofs providing protection against bad weather;	Tomb of Salim  Chisti Sikri Fatehpur
10	Pinnacles	Ornamental capping of towers and buttresses.

Table 4. Indo Saracenic Monuments in Madras with Year of completion and Name of the Architect

S.No	Building	Year of completion	Architect	Image
1.	Chepauk Palace, Chepauk	Around 1764	Paul Benfield
2.	Amir Mahal, Royapattah	1798	.	.
3.	Government College of Fine Arts and Crafts, Egmore	1850	Robert Fellowes Chisholm	.
4.	Preidency College, Chepauk	1850	Robert Fellowes Chisholm
5.	Revenue board building - Chepauk Palace, Chepauk	1850	Robert Fellowes Chisholm	.
6.	Government Museum Building, Egmore	1851-62	.
7.	College Engineering, Guindy	1858 - 61	Robert Fellowes Chisholm	.
8.	Board of Revenue Building & PWD Buildings, Chepauk	1871	Robert Fellowes Chisholm	.
9.	Chennai Central Railway Station, Park Town	1873	George Harding
10.	Senate House (Univ. of Madras), Chepauk	1879	Robert Fellowes Chisholm
11.	Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Govt. Hospital for Women and Children),Egmore	1882	Robert Fellowes Chisholm	.
12.	General Post Office Building, George Town	1884	Robert Fellowes Chisholm
13.	Government Printing Press, Mint street,George Town	1888	.	.
14.	Victoria Public Hall, Chepauk	1888 - 1890	Robert Fellowes Chisholm
15.	Madras High Court, Esplanade	1892	J.W. Brassington, Henry Irwin
16.	Connemara Public Library, Egmore	1896	Col. Samuel Jacob	.
17.	Bank of Madras (State Bank of INDIA), George Town	1897	Col. Samuel Jacob
18.	Bharat Insurance Building, (Kardyl Building), Anna Salai	1897		.
19.	Hindu High School, Triplicane	1897	Henry Irwin	.
20.	King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research, Guindy	1899		.
21.	Law College, Esplanade	1899	J.W. Brassington, Henry Irwin	.
22.	Victoria Hostel, Chepauk	1900	T.Namperumal Chetty (Contractor)	.
23.	Dobbin Hall - Veterinary College, Vepery	1904 - 1905		.
24.	Higginbothams Pvt. Ltd, Anna Salai	1904 - 1905		.
25..	Egmore Railway Station, Egmore	1908	Henry Irwin	.
26.	Lady Lawley Ward at Government Ophthalmic Hospital, Egmore	1909	.	.
27.	Ripon Building, Park Town	1913	T.Namperumal Chetty (Contractor)
28.	YMCA, Esplanade	1920		.
29.	Southern Railway headquarters, Park Town	1921	N. Grayson
30	Madras University (library), Chepauk	1938	.	.
31.	Oriental Research Institute, Chepauk	1938	.	.
32.	Agurchand Mansion (Khaleel Mansion), Anna Salai	.	.Haji Mohamed Khaleel Shirazi	.
33.	Medical Medical College. Anatomy Block, Park Town	.	.	.
34.	State Archives Building, Egmore (Record Office)	.	G.S.T Harris	.
35.	Metropolitan Mag. Court, George Town	.		.
36.	Boat Club – Old Mowbrays Club, Adyar	.		.
37.	Poomphukar Showroom, Anna Salai	.		.

Chepauk Palace - is considered as the very first buildings to be constructed in the Indo Saracenic style of architecture in the sub-continent. The huge Palace, known for its lime mortar, red brick walls, wide arches and intricate carvings, spreads over 117 acres. It was built for the then Nawab of Arcot by Paul Benfield,  an East India Company engineer turned contractor and was completed in 1768. The palace has two structures: Humayun Mahal (facing Wallajah road)and Khalsa Mahal (facing Marina). It was Paul Benfield who made the first example of the Indo-saracenic style of architecture.

Robert Fellowes Chisholm (1838-1915), the first Consulting Architect to the Government of Madras, established the architectural style in its complete form through his finest works still standing as witness in two Indian cities i.e, Madras (Chennai) and Baroda (Vadodara).

Robert Chisholm experimented his several architectural designs: 1. PWD building, Chepauk - Scottish-baronial style; 2. Madras Club buildings and Buckingham and Carnatic Mills - classical style; 3.  Presidency College (1870) -  pure Italian style derived from Renaissance Classicism; 4. Senate House (1864) - beautiful amalgam of various styles like Byzantine and became a new genre by itself – the Indo Saracenic; 5. Post and Telegraph office (G.P.O) (1884) - Saracenic style with projecting eaves in stone as in Bijapur. Arches and columns as in Gujarat: 6. Victoria Public Hall / Town Hall (1887) -Romanesque style; 7. Amir Mahal - Italian villa copying the design of Queen Victoria’s Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. The buildings in the city that bear his stamp are: the Senate buildings of the University of Madras (1874–79) and Lakshmi Vilas Palace in Baroda (Vadodara) (1890).

Henry Irwin experimented his several architectural designs: 1. High Court (1892) Design prepared by J.W.Brassington and Irwin did the finishing work in  Indo Saracenic style; 2. Bank of Madras (1896) - Irwin adopted styles from Col.Samuel Jacob and the structure resemble with  Mughal structures of Fatehpur Sikri; 3. Egmore Railway Station (1908) incorporated more Dravidian elements; 4. National Art Gallery ( 1909) Irwin's master design combining  Mughal, Hindi and classical elements. The facade reflects Buland Darwaza in Fatehpur Sikri.

Col. Swinton Jacobs (1841 – 1917), an army officer and colonial engineer, architect and writer is known for designing many famous buildings of India. He was an engineer in the Public Works Department of British India and practiced in Jaipur, Rajasthan, for more than forty years (1867 - 1912). He encouraged and trained Indian draftsmen to adopt details from examples of Indian architectural history and made them to appreciate the intrinsic quality of Indian architecture. His contribution was substantial to architectural activities of the time and his designs incorporated  Indian-Islamic architectural characteristics with European Neo Classical and Gothic Revival styles. Jacob’s other prominent buildings include Albert Hall, Jaipur, Rambagh Palace in Jaipur and King George Medical College in Lucknow.

The Indo Saracenic building might have been deigned by colonial architects, yet carrying into action was rested with the Indian contractors. Thaticonda Namberumal Chetty (1856 – 1925) was an Indian contractor, engineer, builder and businessman who constructed a number of public buildings in the city of Madras in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The other contractors include Nemali Pattabhirama Rao, P Loganatha Mudaliar, Samynatha Pillai, Somasudaram and few others.

Reference: 

1. Heritage Structures in Chennai. Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_structures_in_Chennai
2. Robert Chisholm – the Indo Saracenic Man http://sriramv.wordpress.com/2012/03/09/robert-chisholm-the-indo-saracenic-man/
3. Is pre-1947 architecture purely British? http://sriramv.wordpress.com/tag/indo-saracenic/