The Prehistoric period mark the time when the first civilization or humans evolved. There are controversies on the time of origin of the Prehistoric period in India and the historians find it as a healthy point of discussion about the Prehistoric period. It is believed first civilization originated in between 200000 B.C. to 3500 - 2500 B.C. The Prehistoric era has been categorzied into six main periods and they include: 1. Stone age or Stone period; 2. Paleolithic age or Paleolithic age or Paleolithic period; 3. Mesolithic age or Mesolithic period; 4. Neolithic age or Neolithic period; 5. Bronze age or Bronze period; and 6. Iron age or Iron period. Iron age in India is referred to as Megalithic age.
Till date only two Paleolithic sites showing Paleolithic settlements have been located in South India and the one among the two is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The evidences from the excavated site includes fossils of animals and primitive stone implements. A Neolithic axe head with ancient script writing on it was gathered in Tamil Nadu. Neolithic humans never had permanent settlements and lived on mounds or foot hills and kept on migrating from place to place for gazing purposes. They practiced the burials of dead bodies within urn or pits.
Before 3,000 years ago, when man invented iron and its application as a tool and a weapon, the metal revolutionized life and society. That period is better known as Iron Age. Iron age in India is referred to as Megalithic age. Origin of the terminology 'Megalith' indicates that the word 'Mega' = magnitude and 'litho' = stone(s). According to Champakalakhmi, the Sangam period forms the last phase of the megalithic period in Tamilakam. The Sangam community (megalithic community) was forming part of their tank irrigated agriculture, permanent agricultural settlements, their chieftains (velir), kings, and the peasantry (velala). They also mastered in pottery techniques.
The body of Tamil classical literature composed between 300 B.C. to 300 A.D. is known as Tamil Sangam literature. Sangam literature reverberate the existence of the spirited and highly developed literary culture in time honoured Tamilakam. Tamil Sangam period poems commemorate the traditional practice of erecting megalithic tombs which can open up the hidden fabric of social life. The Sangam literature reverberate the Sangam Tamil society with its distinguishable heritage and culture; its emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Of the Eight Sangam Anthologies, Purananuru and Pathitrupathu are implicated with the social life such as the life of the kings (Chera, Chola and Pandya), chieftains (Velirs), wars, patriotism, valour and heroism, the munificence of kings, the wisdom of bards and poets (also poetesses), ethics and philosophy. 'Arrupadai,' a form of Sangam literature speaks about the community of poets including various sects known as Paanar, Porunar, Koothar, Viraliyar, Kodiyar, Akavunar and Pulavar.
Athiyaman Neduman Anci (belongs to Athiyaman dynasty) was a Tamil Velir chieftain of the Sangam period and he was ruling the present Salem and Dharmapuri zone and his capital was Tagadur (present Dharmapuri town). Sangam poetess Avvaiyar was visiting the court of Athiyaman and out of affection the poetess was compelled to spend more time in his court. There was a close bondage between the wise poetess and her patron. Athiyaman died in a battle with Cheramān Peruncheral Irumporai trying to protect his Thagadur from the Chera king. Avvaiyār was in great pain at the loss of her patron. The poetess Avvaiyar wrote 59 poems in Purananuru. The 21 Puranauru poems (87-104 and 231, 232, 235, 315) she composed were about grief and sorrow over the death of Athiyaman.
வலம் படு வாய் வாள் ஏந்தி ஒன்னார்
களம் படக் கடந்த கழல் தொடி தடக்கை,
ஆர் கலி நறவின் அதியர் கோமான்
போர் அடு திருவின் பொலந்தார் அஞ்சி
பால் புரை பிறை நுதல் பொலிந்த சென்னி
நீல மணி மிடற்று ஒருவன் போல
மன்னுக பெரும நீயே தொன் நிலைப்
பெரு மலை விடர் அகத்து அரு மிசை கொண்ட
சிறி இலை நெல்லித் தீங் கனி குறியாது
ஆதல் நின் அகத்து அடக்கிச்,
சாதல் நீங்க எமக்கு ஈத்தனையே. - Purananuru 91
King of the Athiyans! You who give excitement causing alcohol!
Your powerful hand with its swirling bracelets
lifts a victorious sword and strikes down enemies in battlefields,
Anji with a golden garland who is rich in murderous battles!
May you live as long as he lives, the one who has a milk-like
glowing crescent moon on his head, whose neck is as dark as sapphires!
O Greatness! Without considering how difficult it was to get
the sweet nelli fruit from a tree with small leaves,
plucked from the crevices of an ancient lofty mountain
that was difficult to scale, you gave it to me, knowing its benefits
of removing death, which knowledge you kept within yourself. - Purananuru 91
Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi
The Jambai inscription of Athiyaman Neduman Anci connect the Tamil Sangam period with the Tamil-Brahmi Period. It is the 1st century Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of Jambai village, Tirukkoyilur taluk, Villuppuram district (Jambaimalai containing 1st century B.C. Tamil Brahmi inscriptions) reads as reads:
"Satiyaputo Atiyan Nedumaan Anjji itta Paali".
In (Tamil: ஸதியபுதோ அதியந் நெடுமாந் அஞ்சி ஈத்த பாழி).
Meaning of the epigraph may be rendered as "The abode (pali) given by (itta) Atiyan Nedumaan Anji (name), the Satyaputra (title)". In spite of this inscription being brief and single lined one, it throws valuable light on various aspects of South Indian history. It is also prove that the “Satyaputo” mentioned by Asoka was none other than the Athiyaman dynasty.
Megalithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The megalithic burial sites and monuments have evoked lot of interests among antiquarian researchers, historians, archaeologists, anthropologists and heritage loving public in 16th century. Since from 19th century more and more megalithic burial sites were excavated, researched for social customs and practices and cataloged and these burial stone monuments (in spite of its regional and local variations) were brought under the common category known as 'megalithic monuments.'
The people of the iron age practiced certain customary burial (megalithic) patterns. These 'Megalithic burial monuments' are more commonly scattered in ancient Tamilakam (Tamizhakam) i.e, present south Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Union Territory of Pondicherry and Kerala. In Tamil Nadu the monuments are far more impressive found scattered in the districts of Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai, Tiruvallur, Karur, Chengalpattu, Tiruvannamalai, Coimbatore, Krishnagiri, Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram. Kancheepuram district has the maximum number of megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu. In Kanchipuram district alone, archaeologists found about 150 megalithic burial sites and out of which 103 sites are cataloged, notified and protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) (Please see the list at the end of this post). Pudukkottai district was one of the homes of pre-historic man. Number of burial sites are found in the northern and western parts of the district. In and around Pudukkottai there are many vestiges of the oldest habitations of man and some of the megalithic records known in the south. Megalithic site is dotted in Vellaripatti village near Madurai on the Madurai-Tiruchi highway.
Megalithic Burial Sites and Monuments
There are two categories of megalithic structures: I. "Monolithic Burial Sites and Monuments" and the II. "Urn Burials" and III. "Polylithic Burial Sites and Monuments."
I. Monolithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The monolithic structures include 1. Hero Stone and 2. Menhir
1. Hero Stone (Nadukal / Veerakkal)
Hero stones are generally denoted as Nadukal (நடுகல்) meaning erected stone and this memorial stone was erected to commemorate some memorable event. The stones were erected to commemorate the death of heroes in Vetchi battles (Tamil chieftains and soldiers wear Vetchi flower (Ixora coccinea) while invading a country and the soldiers will go in to the border areas and steal the cattle.) and Karanthai battle (Tamil chietains and soldiers wear Karanthai flower (Sphaeranthus indicus/ Sphaeranthus hirstus) and defend against invasion and cattle raid.
‘இல்லடுகள்ளின் சில்குடிச் சீறூர்ப்
புடைநடு கல்லின் நாட்பலியூட்டி
நன்னீராட்டி நெய்நறை கொளீஇய
மங்குல் மாப்புகை மறுகுடன் கமழும்’ - Purananuru (புறநானூறு) (306)
(Meaning: The hero stones were implanted near the houses of families engaged in extracting toddy. During the dawn people performed ablution to the hero stone and lit the ghee lamp and offered food items. The fragrant smoke from ghee lamp spread across the street.
Hero Stones are considered as a variant of menhirs. The distinction of hero stones are its size when compared with menhirs. Tamil Sangam literature refer hero stones as Nadukal or Virakkal in Tamil. Hero stones were erected as a memorial for heroes, who showed extreme bravery to defend their territory and lost their life for the sake of their country and countrymen and the stones may or may show figurines and inscriptions about the hero, name of the king and the battle and the name of the person who erected hero stones. The Sangam Tamil grammar work, Tolkappiam as well as another Sangam Tamil literary work 'Puraporul Venpa Malai' details the procedure, rules and stages of erecting hero tones. The well known Sangam literature 'Purananuru' refer 'Natukal' in its poems. The state Department of Archaeology has excavated hundreds of hero stones scattered around North Arcot and South Arcot districts in Tamil Nadu.
The monolithic hero stone monuments mostly bear inscriptions displaying a variety of embellishments, including bas relief panels, statues, and figurines of carved stone. The inscriptions may bear some data about the hero stone: 1. name of the hero; 2. his chieftain; 3. name of the war; and 4. the name of the person who erected the hero stone. Till date there are five hero stones with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
2. Menhir
Menhirs are the well known megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. It is a single monolithic undressed stone implanted vertically on the grave or nearer to it. Menhir may be varying from smaller to huge or mammoth in size and the base rests on the ground. Occasionally two numbers (one smaller and one taller stones) of menhir stones appear facing each other. The common public view them as king and queen. Some of them may not have corpses and hence considered as memorial tombs. Some scholars relate menhirs to the Solstice and equinox.Menhirs are found in various places in Tamil Nadu: 1. Vembur village, about 60 kilometres from Andipatti in Theni district
II. Urn Burial
1. Urn Burials
An urn is a tall, rounded vase with a narrow neck and foot pedestal. Funerary urns (also called burial urns and cinerary urns) and urn burials (Hydriotaphia) were practiced in many civilizations. The prevalence of the practice of 'urn burials' was mentioned in some poems of 'eight anthologies' i.e, 'Narrinai,' 'Purananur,' and 'Patirrupattu.' The urns were referred in Tamil as Eema Thazhi (ஈமாத்தாழி), Mudhumakkal Jadi (முதுமக்கள் சாடி) and Mudhumakkal Thazhi (முதுமக்கள் தாழி). There are also mentions about the erection of memorials in remembrance of the dead.
"மாயிறும் தாழி கவிப்பத் தாவின்று கழிக வெற்கொல்லாக் கூற்றே"
Narrinai நற்றிணை (271)
"மன்னர் மறைத்த தாழி வன்னி மரத்து விளங்கிய காடே"
Pathirrupattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) (44)
"கொடி நுடங்கு யானை நெடுமாவளவன் தேவர் உலகம் எய்தினன் ஆதலின் அன்னோற் கவிக்கும் கண் அகந்தாழி"
Purananuru (புறநானூறு) (228)
Manimekalai, one of the five Tamil epic (Tamil Sangam literature) mentions about the methodology and burial practices followed by Tamils in ancient Tamilakam (Tamil speaking region)
சுடுவோ ரிடுவோர் தொடுகுழிப் படுப்போர்
தாழ்வயி னடைப்போர் தாழியிற் கவிப்போர்
இரவும் பகலும் இளிவுடன் றரியாது
வருவோர் பெயர்வோர் மாறாச் சும்மையும் Manimekalai (6-11-66-69)
i.e, cremators (suduvor சுடுவோர்), leave dead body to decay (iduvor இடுவோர்), entomb the dead body in small low lying chambers (Thazhvayin - Adaippor தாழ்வாயின் அடைப்போர்) and embalm the dead body in burial urn and cover mouth (Thazhiyir - Kavippor தாழியிர் கவிப்போர்) Some historians feel that the Sangam Period also forms part of this Iron age or megalithic period (Manimekalai vi, 67-68).
Evidences of a prehistoric burial custom of interring dead persons in urns or earthen pots has been excavated in various parts of Tamil Nadu: 1. Thirumangalam, Kuthalam, in Nagapattinam, district; 2. Mandapam village, near Aarpakkam intersection, about 14 km from Kancheepuram district; 3. Panchakarai on the banks of the Coleroon in Srirengam, Trichy district; 4. Sengalur village, Kulathur taluk, Pudukottai district; 5. Thillayadi in Nagapattinam district; 6. Sambandhanur near Tiruvannamalai district.
Adichanallur (Adithanallur), Tuticorin District, Tamil Nadu (The Hindu Newspaper Report 1, Report 2, Report 3, Report 4, Report 5, Report 6) is an extensive urn-burial site spread over 114 acres
(45.6 hectares) on the right bank of the
Tamiraparani river, on a low, rocky hillock close to a lake and surrounded by paddy fields and
banana plantations. This extensive urn burial site was first excavated in 1876. Later Alexander Rea, an Englishman and Superintending Archaeologist, excavated the urn-burial site between 1889 and 1905. He excavated a good number of urns and Rea discovered about 1,872 objects including gold diadems (with parallels from Mycenae), bronze objects notably lids with exquisite finials depicting many animal forms, iron objects besides thousands of potsherds. After hundred years the excavation was also resumed during 2003-04 and 2004-05. They found 185 burial urns, including 100 fully intact urns, and 36 with complete human skeletons inside, unearthed at a depth of two to three meters in various (six 10m x 10m trenches) trenches within the area of 600 square meters. Along with the skeletons, husks, grains of rice, charred rice and neolithic Celts, red ware, black ware, copper bangles and earrings, iron spearheads, daggers, and swords have been found. Three of these urns contain writing resembling the early Tamil Brahmi script.
There are number of urn burial sites have been excavated in various places in Tamil Nadu.
2. Sarcophagus
Sacrophagus
is a kind of coffin used by ancient Tamils to preserve the cadaver. The
originating Greek terminology indicates 'Salco' = flesh and 'phacus' or
'fagus' = eating. The terracotta legged sarcophagi were excavated many dolmonoid -cists burial sites or rock-cut caves in Tamil Nadu.
III Polylithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The meaning is the burial surrounded by small and huge stones, either uneven and rough or dressed. Europeans coined the term "Megalithic" to indicate and describe the burial monuments such as Dolmens, Cromlechs and Menhirs which used huge undressed stones.
Cairn is the most popular megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. Usually this monument is the mound of stone rubble piled up as a memorial. There may be a circular enclosure formed by undressed stone wall or heap of rough stones or even single stone used to mark the boundary. The monument may or may not be surrounded by stone circles. Beneath these cairn there may be single or multiple graves with stone-chest(s) enclosing the corpse as well as funeral urns.
Cairn circles are the most popular megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. The cairn circles consist of typical stone circle surrounding the cairn. Beneath these cairn there may be single or multiple graves with stone-chest(s) enclosing the cadaver as well as multiple funeral urns or legged terracotta sarcophagus. The cairn circle was found at Veeranam village, at the foot of a chain of hills, in Tandaramapattu taluk, Tiruvannamalai district.
3. Cist
Cist is the common megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. A cist is the grave appearing like a box and usually built with two orthostatic stone slabs on each side for the burial of a corpse (especially beneath the ground and covered with the capstone on its top). There may or may not be the floor stone. A trapezoidal or circular or semi-circular opening deliberately made in one of the orthostatic stone slabs and this opening is known as 'port-hole.' A cist with port-hole is categorized as 'port-holed cist.' Another category of cist is the 'transcepted cist' with ante-chamber and this bears the port-hole in the prime cist wall. The chamber of the cist also separated into two equal halves with east-west alignment. Some times the may again get separated into upper and lower halves by a horizontal slab with the provision of port-holes one below the other. The cist is usually marked with stone circles. If the cist formed beneath the ground, it may or may not covered by the cairn. Pudukkottai district is well known for cist variants.
4. Cromlechs
Wikimedia: Cromlech, Coorg, India
A prehistoric monument consisting of monoliths encircling a mound. According to Wikipedia 'Cromlech' is a Brythonic term coined to describe prehistoric megalithic burial monuments. The origin of the term indicates 'crom' = "bent" or "curved" and 'llech' = "slab" or "flagstone." The grave stone may appear above or partially above the ground surface and surrounded by circular or elliptical or barrel-shaped stone circles. Cromlechs use two or more orthostatic stone slabs to cover the sides and the top cover slab to form square or trapezoidal chamber. It may or may not have floor slab. Usually the north or north-west side of the chamber kept open. The cromlech monuments are excavated in Pudukkottai, Coimbatore, Nilgiri districts in Tamil Nadu and in Pondicherry.
5. Dolmen
In Tamil Nadu dolmen sites could be seen in Krishnagiri, Villupuram, Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Dindugul, Palani Hills and other place including in Kerala. About 200 dolmens, including four different (dolmen) types dating back to 3rd B.C. - 3rd A.D., were excavated in Mallachandiram village in Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu. The burial site also shows cairn circles of nomadic tribes. The dolmens were formed using orthostatic stone slabs with port-holes oriented towards east. The interiors of the monuments exhibit figurines i.e, human figurine, animals, arrows and bow as well as few unique symbols. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has confirmed that the dolmens found in Marayoor, Kerala are 5,000 years old. Big dolmen with four petroglyphs that portray men with tridents and a wheel with spokes has been found at Kollur, near Tirukoilur, 35 km from Villupuram, Tamil Nadu. Petroglyph, carved on a stone slab of a dolmen found at Beruthorapatti hamlet, near Kallampalayam, close to the Moyar river in Nilgiris district. A natural cavern with a lot of ancient rock art, contemporary tribal paintings and even modern-day graffiti has been identified near Mavadaippu tribal village, about 7 km from the Kadamparai hydel power station, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu's . Number of tombs with burial chambers found at Periyapatti Kadu on the upper part of Kudhiraiyaru dam was remnants of Megalithic period.
6. Dolmenoia - Cist
Dolmenoia - cist is the prehistoric burial monument comprising the chamber made out of orthostatic slab stones and the capstone and the whole structure confined by a single circle of stones. Some dolmenoia - cists excavated in Chenglepet district show rectangular chambers constructed with inwardly dressed laterite slabs. In one variant the burial chambers of the monuments (only some chambers) seen just above the ground level and they appear more like a cist than dolmen. In another variant used granite stones for burial chambers as well as the encircling stones. In the third variant the undressed orthostatic slab stones get buried beneath the ground and the capstone rest at ground level. The burial chamber sometimes gets concealed by the cairn.
Hood Stone is the uncommon megalithic monument found excavated in Tamil Nadu. A hood stone is the dome shaped megalithic burial monument usually built with dressed orthostatic laterite stone slab resting with its flat face directly on a number of hood - stones at the ground level. The monument is surrounded by circle of laterite stones covering at the top.
8. Rock-Cut-Caves Tombs
Source: Laterite rocks cut caves of the burial site Anakkara boarding Malappuram district, Kerala.
The megalithic rock-cut tomb has been found in many places in Kerala 1. Mukranmoola in the Neykuppa forest, under the Chethalayath forest range, in Wayanad district.
9. Topikal (Capstone or Hatstone)
The topikal (capstone or hatstone) is well known dome shaped megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. The topical or capstone lies on four quaderantal clinostatic stones and connect them together at the base structure to a square.
This list published by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Chennai Circle (http://www.asichennai.gov.in/sites_full_list.html) serve as a single source of comprehensive information about the nature and location of various Megalithic burial sites - 1. Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles, and 2. Urn Burials including in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Union Territory of Pondicherry.
Till date only two Paleolithic sites showing Paleolithic settlements have been located in South India and the one among the two is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The evidences from the excavated site includes fossils of animals and primitive stone implements. A Neolithic axe head with ancient script writing on it was gathered in Tamil Nadu. Neolithic humans never had permanent settlements and lived on mounds or foot hills and kept on migrating from place to place for gazing purposes. They practiced the burials of dead bodies within urn or pits.
Before 3,000 years ago, when man invented iron and its application as a tool and a weapon, the metal revolutionized life and society. That period is better known as Iron Age. Iron age in India is referred to as Megalithic age. Origin of the terminology 'Megalith' indicates that the word 'Mega' = magnitude and 'litho' = stone(s). According to Champakalakhmi, the Sangam period forms the last phase of the megalithic period in Tamilakam. The Sangam community (megalithic community) was forming part of their tank irrigated agriculture, permanent agricultural settlements, their chieftains (velir), kings, and the peasantry (velala). They also mastered in pottery techniques.
The body of Tamil classical literature composed between 300 B.C. to 300 A.D. is known as Tamil Sangam literature. Sangam literature reverberate the existence of the spirited and highly developed literary culture in time honoured Tamilakam. Tamil Sangam period poems commemorate the traditional practice of erecting megalithic tombs which can open up the hidden fabric of social life. The Sangam literature reverberate the Sangam Tamil society with its distinguishable heritage and culture; its emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement. Of the Eight Sangam Anthologies, Purananuru and Pathitrupathu are implicated with the social life such as the life of the kings (Chera, Chola and Pandya), chieftains (Velirs), wars, patriotism, valour and heroism, the munificence of kings, the wisdom of bards and poets (also poetesses), ethics and philosophy. 'Arrupadai,' a form of Sangam literature speaks about the community of poets including various sects known as Paanar, Porunar, Koothar, Viraliyar, Kodiyar, Akavunar and Pulavar.
Athiyaman Neduman Anci (belongs to Athiyaman dynasty) was a Tamil Velir chieftain of the Sangam period and he was ruling the present Salem and Dharmapuri zone and his capital was Tagadur (present Dharmapuri town). Sangam poetess Avvaiyar was visiting the court of Athiyaman and out of affection the poetess was compelled to spend more time in his court. There was a close bondage between the wise poetess and her patron. Athiyaman died in a battle with Cheramān Peruncheral Irumporai trying to protect his Thagadur from the Chera king. Avvaiyār was in great pain at the loss of her patron. The poetess Avvaiyar wrote 59 poems in Purananuru. The 21 Puranauru poems (87-104 and 231, 232, 235, 315) she composed were about grief and sorrow over the death of Athiyaman.
வலம் படு வாய் வாள் ஏந்தி ஒன்னார்
களம் படக் கடந்த கழல் தொடி தடக்கை,
ஆர் கலி நறவின் அதியர் கோமான்
போர் அடு திருவின் பொலந்தார் அஞ்சி
பால் புரை பிறை நுதல் பொலிந்த சென்னி
நீல மணி மிடற்று ஒருவன் போல
மன்னுக பெரும நீயே தொன் நிலைப்
பெரு மலை விடர் அகத்து அரு மிசை கொண்ட
சிறி இலை நெல்லித் தீங் கனி குறியாது
ஆதல் நின் அகத்து அடக்கிச்,
சாதல் நீங்க எமக்கு ஈத்தனையே. - Purananuru 91
King of the Athiyans! You who give excitement causing alcohol!
Your powerful hand with its swirling bracelets
lifts a victorious sword and strikes down enemies in battlefields,
Anji with a golden garland who is rich in murderous battles!
May you live as long as he lives, the one who has a milk-like
glowing crescent moon on his head, whose neck is as dark as sapphires!
O Greatness! Without considering how difficult it was to get
the sweet nelli fruit from a tree with small leaves,
plucked from the crevices of an ancient lofty mountain
that was difficult to scale, you gave it to me, knowing its benefits
of removing death, which knowledge you kept within yourself. - Purananuru 91
Sangam Poems Translated by Vaidehi
The Jambai inscription of Athiyaman Neduman Anci connect the Tamil Sangam period with the Tamil-Brahmi Period. It is the 1st century Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of Jambai village, Tirukkoyilur taluk, Villuppuram district (Jambaimalai containing 1st century B.C. Tamil Brahmi inscriptions) reads as reads:
"Satiyaputo Atiyan Nedumaan Anjji itta Paali".
In (Tamil: ஸதியபுதோ அதியந் நெடுமாந் அஞ்சி ஈத்த பாழி).
Meaning of the epigraph may be rendered as "The abode (pali) given by (itta) Atiyan Nedumaan Anji (name), the Satyaputra (title)". In spite of this inscription being brief and single lined one, it throws valuable light on various aspects of South Indian history. It is also prove that the “Satyaputo” mentioned by Asoka was none other than the Athiyaman dynasty.
Megalithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The megalithic burial sites and monuments have evoked lot of interests among antiquarian researchers, historians, archaeologists, anthropologists and heritage loving public in 16th century. Since from 19th century more and more megalithic burial sites were excavated, researched for social customs and practices and cataloged and these burial stone monuments (in spite of its regional and local variations) were brought under the common category known as 'megalithic monuments.'
The people of the iron age practiced certain customary burial (megalithic) patterns. These 'Megalithic burial monuments' are more commonly scattered in ancient Tamilakam (Tamizhakam) i.e, present south Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Union Territory of Pondicherry and Kerala. In Tamil Nadu the monuments are far more impressive found scattered in the districts of Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai, Tiruvallur, Karur, Chengalpattu, Tiruvannamalai, Coimbatore, Krishnagiri, Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram. Kancheepuram district has the maximum number of megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu. In Kanchipuram district alone, archaeologists found about 150 megalithic burial sites and out of which 103 sites are cataloged, notified and protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) (Please see the list at the end of this post). Pudukkottai district was one of the homes of pre-historic man. Number of burial sites are found in the northern and western parts of the district. In and around Pudukkottai there are many vestiges of the oldest habitations of man and some of the megalithic records known in the south. Megalithic site is dotted in Vellaripatti village near Madurai on the Madurai-Tiruchi highway.
Megalithic Burial Sites and Monuments
There are two categories of megalithic structures: I. "Monolithic Burial Sites and Monuments" and the II. "Urn Burials" and III. "Polylithic Burial Sites and Monuments."
I. Monolithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The monolithic structures include 1. Hero Stone and 2. Menhir
1. Hero Stone (Nadukal / Veerakkal)
Source: Wikimedia Hero stone in Vellore, Tamil Nadu
Source: Wikimedia Hero stone in Devikapuram, Tamil Nadu
Source: Wikimedia Hero stone in Thandarambat, Tamil Nadu
Hero stones are generally denoted as Nadukal (நடுகல்) meaning erected stone and this memorial stone was erected to commemorate some memorable event. The stones were erected to commemorate the death of heroes in Vetchi battles (Tamil chieftains and soldiers wear Vetchi flower (Ixora coccinea) while invading a country and the soldiers will go in to the border areas and steal the cattle.) and Karanthai battle (Tamil chietains and soldiers wear Karanthai flower (Sphaeranthus indicus/ Sphaeranthus hirstus) and defend against invasion and cattle raid.
‘இல்லடுகள்ளின் சில்குடிச் சீறூர்ப்
புடைநடு கல்லின் நாட்பலியூட்டி
நன்னீராட்டி நெய்நறை கொளீஇய
மங்குல் மாப்புகை மறுகுடன் கமழும்’ - Purananuru (புறநானூறு) (306)
(Meaning: The hero stones were implanted near the houses of families engaged in extracting toddy. During the dawn people performed ablution to the hero stone and lit the ghee lamp and offered food items. The fragrant smoke from ghee lamp spread across the street.
Hero Stones are considered as a variant of menhirs. The distinction of hero stones are its size when compared with menhirs. Tamil Sangam literature refer hero stones as Nadukal or Virakkal in Tamil. Hero stones were erected as a memorial for heroes, who showed extreme bravery to defend their territory and lost their life for the sake of their country and countrymen and the stones may or may show figurines and inscriptions about the hero, name of the king and the battle and the name of the person who erected hero stones. The Sangam Tamil grammar work, Tolkappiam as well as another Sangam Tamil literary work 'Puraporul Venpa Malai' details the procedure, rules and stages of erecting hero tones. The well known Sangam literature 'Purananuru' refer 'Natukal' in its poems. The state Department of Archaeology has excavated hundreds of hero stones scattered around North Arcot and South Arcot districts in Tamil Nadu.
The monolithic hero stone monuments mostly bear inscriptions displaying a variety of embellishments, including bas relief panels, statues, and figurines of carved stone. The inscriptions may bear some data about the hero stone: 1. name of the hero; 2. his chieftain; 3. name of the war; and 4. the name of the person who erected the hero stone. Till date there are five hero stones with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
2. Menhir
Wikimedia: Ramavarmapuram, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Menhirs are the well known megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. It is a single monolithic undressed stone implanted vertically on the grave or nearer to it. Menhir may be varying from smaller to huge or mammoth in size and the base rests on the ground. Occasionally two numbers (one smaller and one taller stones) of menhir stones appear facing each other. The common public view them as king and queen. Some of them may not have corpses and hence considered as memorial tombs. Some scholars relate menhirs to the Solstice and equinox.Menhirs are found in various places in Tamil Nadu: 1. Vembur village, about 60 kilometres from Andipatti in Theni district
II. Urn Burial
1. Urn Burials
An urn is a tall, rounded vase with a narrow neck and foot pedestal. Funerary urns (also called burial urns and cinerary urns) and urn burials (Hydriotaphia) were practiced in many civilizations. The prevalence of the practice of 'urn burials' was mentioned in some poems of 'eight anthologies' i.e, 'Narrinai,' 'Purananur,' and 'Patirrupattu.' The urns were referred in Tamil as Eema Thazhi (ஈமாத்தாழி), Mudhumakkal Jadi (முதுமக்கள் சாடி) and Mudhumakkal Thazhi (முதுமக்கள் தாழி). There are also mentions about the erection of memorials in remembrance of the dead.
"மாயிறும் தாழி கவிப்பத் தாவின்று கழிக வெற்கொல்லாக் கூற்றே"
Narrinai நற்றிணை (271)
"மன்னர் மறைத்த தாழி வன்னி மரத்து விளங்கிய காடே"
Pathirrupattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) (44)
"கொடி நுடங்கு யானை நெடுமாவளவன் தேவர் உலகம் எய்தினன் ஆதலின் அன்னோற் கவிக்கும் கண் அகந்தாழி"
Purananuru (புறநானூறு) (228)
Manimekalai, one of the five Tamil epic (Tamil Sangam literature) mentions about the methodology and burial practices followed by Tamils in ancient Tamilakam (Tamil speaking region)
சுடுவோ ரிடுவோர் தொடுகுழிப் படுப்போர்
தாழ்வயி னடைப்போர் தாழியிற் கவிப்போர்
இரவும் பகலும் இளிவுடன் றரியாது
வருவோர் பெயர்வோர் மாறாச் சும்மையும் Manimekalai (6-11-66-69)
i.e, cremators (suduvor சுடுவோர்), leave dead body to decay (iduvor இடுவோர்), entomb the dead body in small low lying chambers (Thazhvayin - Adaippor தாழ்வாயின் அடைப்போர்) and embalm the dead body in burial urn and cover mouth (Thazhiyir - Kavippor தாழியிர் கவிப்போர்) Some historians feel that the Sangam Period also forms part of this Iron age or megalithic period (Manimekalai vi, 67-68).
Evidences of a prehistoric burial custom of interring dead persons in urns or earthen pots has been excavated in various parts of Tamil Nadu: 1. Thirumangalam, Kuthalam, in Nagapattinam, district; 2. Mandapam village, near Aarpakkam intersection, about 14 km from Kancheepuram district; 3. Panchakarai on the banks of the Coleroon in Srirengam, Trichy district; 4. Sengalur village, Kulathur taluk, Pudukottai district; 5. Thillayadi in Nagapattinam district; 6. Sambandhanur near Tiruvannamalai district.
Source: Archaeological Survey of India - Adichanallur Excavations
Source: Archaeological Survey of India - Urn
There are number of urn burial sites have been excavated in various places in Tamil Nadu.
2800
years old human skeletons were found in urns. These urns also contained
writing resembling early Tamil Brahmi. - See more at:
http://varnam.nationalinterest.in/2004/06/more_burrial_urns_in_tamil_nad/#sthash.oBqngjbc.dpuf
2800
years old human skeletons were found in urns. These urns also contained
writing resembling early Tamil Brahmi. - See more at:
http://varnam.nationalinterest.in/2004/06/more_burrial_urns_in_tamil_nad/#sthash.oBqngjbc.dpuf
2800
years old human skeletons were found in urns. These urns also contained
writing resembling early Tamil Brahmi. - See more at:
http://varnam.nationalinterest.in/2004/06/more_burrial_urns_in_tamil_nad/#sthash.oBqngjbc.dpuf
2. Sarcophagus
Source: Sarcophagi Urn Burial - Pre-historic Museum Poondi, Tamil Nadu
III Polylithic Burial Sites and Monuments
The meaning is the burial surrounded by small and huge stones, either uneven and rough or dressed. Europeans coined the term "Megalithic" to indicate and describe the burial monuments such as Dolmens, Cromlechs and Menhirs which used huge undressed stones.
1. Cairns
Cairn is the most popular megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. Usually this monument is the mound of stone rubble piled up as a memorial. There may be a circular enclosure formed by undressed stone wall or heap of rough stones or even single stone used to mark the boundary. The monument may or may not be surrounded by stone circles. Beneath these cairn there may be single or multiple graves with stone-chest(s) enclosing the corpse as well as funeral urns.
2. Cairn Circle
Cairn circles are the most popular megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. The cairn circles consist of typical stone circle surrounding the cairn. Beneath these cairn there may be single or multiple graves with stone-chest(s) enclosing the cadaver as well as multiple funeral urns or legged terracotta sarcophagus. The cairn circle was found at Veeranam village, at the foot of a chain of hills, in Tandaramapattu taluk, Tiruvannamalai district.
YouTube: Cairn Circles Tamil Nadu by Venkatram Shrinivas
3. Cist
Cist is the common megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. A cist is the grave appearing like a box and usually built with two orthostatic stone slabs on each side for the burial of a corpse (especially beneath the ground and covered with the capstone on its top). There may or may not be the floor stone. A trapezoidal or circular or semi-circular opening deliberately made in one of the orthostatic stone slabs and this opening is known as 'port-hole.' A cist with port-hole is categorized as 'port-holed cist.' Another category of cist is the 'transcepted cist' with ante-chamber and this bears the port-hole in the prime cist wall. The chamber of the cist also separated into two equal halves with east-west alignment. Some times the may again get separated into upper and lower halves by a horizontal slab with the provision of port-holes one below the other. The cist is usually marked with stone circles. If the cist formed beneath the ground, it may or may not covered by the cairn. Pudukkottai district is well known for cist variants.
4. Cromlechs
A prehistoric monument consisting of monoliths encircling a mound. According to Wikipedia 'Cromlech' is a Brythonic term coined to describe prehistoric megalithic burial monuments. The origin of the term indicates 'crom' = "bent" or "curved" and 'llech' = "slab" or "flagstone." The grave stone may appear above or partially above the ground surface and surrounded by circular or elliptical or barrel-shaped stone circles. Cromlechs use two or more orthostatic stone slabs to cover the sides and the top cover slab to form square or trapezoidal chamber. It may or may not have floor slab. Usually the north or north-west side of the chamber kept open. The cromlech monuments are excavated in Pudukkottai, Coimbatore, Nilgiri districts in Tamil Nadu and in Pondicherry.
5. Dolmen
Wikimedia:Dolmens of Kodaikanal in Palani hills, Tamil Nadu
Wikimedia: A long shot of Dolmens and Urns of Sengalur, Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu
Wikimedia: Dolmens and Urns of Sengalur, Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu
These sites built of stone structures above for partially above ground with out the circle of stones. A single slab of stone supported by several orthostatic boulders or slabs built on the surface of the ground in such a way as to enclose a. space or chamber beneath the capstone. It may or may not be wholly or partially covered by a barrow or cairn. A dolmen may be with or without port hole (mostly oriented towards south). A number of dolmens surrounded by a ring stone circle is known as multiple dolmens. They are mostly found located outside the habitation and nearer to cemetery land. Some of the dolmens never had the vestiges of cadaver bones and hence they may be the memorials to the dead.
In Tamil Nadu dolmen sites could be seen in Krishnagiri, Villupuram, Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Dindugul, Palani Hills and other place including in Kerala. About 200 dolmens, including four different (dolmen) types dating back to 3rd B.C. - 3rd A.D., were excavated in Mallachandiram village in Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu. The burial site also shows cairn circles of nomadic tribes. The dolmens were formed using orthostatic stone slabs with port-holes oriented towards east. The interiors of the monuments exhibit figurines i.e, human figurine, animals, arrows and bow as well as few unique symbols. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has confirmed that the dolmens found in Marayoor, Kerala are 5,000 years old. Big dolmen with four petroglyphs that portray men with tridents and a wheel with spokes has been found at Kollur, near Tirukoilur, 35 km from Villupuram, Tamil Nadu. Petroglyph, carved on a stone slab of a dolmen found at Beruthorapatti hamlet, near Kallampalayam, close to the Moyar river in Nilgiris district. A natural cavern with a lot of ancient rock art, contemporary tribal paintings and even modern-day graffiti has been identified near Mavadaippu tribal village, about 7 km from the Kadamparai hydel power station, Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu's . Number of tombs with burial chambers found at Periyapatti Kadu on the upper part of Kudhiraiyaru dam was remnants of Megalithic period.
6. Dolmenoia - Cist
Dolmenoia - cist is the prehistoric burial monument comprising the chamber made out of orthostatic slab stones and the capstone and the whole structure confined by a single circle of stones. Some dolmenoia - cists excavated in Chenglepet district show rectangular chambers constructed with inwardly dressed laterite slabs. In one variant the burial chambers of the monuments (only some chambers) seen just above the ground level and they appear more like a cist than dolmen. In another variant used granite stones for burial chambers as well as the encircling stones. In the third variant the undressed orthostatic slab stones get buried beneath the ground and the capstone rest at ground level. The burial chamber sometimes gets concealed by the cairn.
7. Hood Stones
Source: Megalithics in Kerala. Markazhi
Hood Stone is the uncommon megalithic monument found excavated in Tamil Nadu. A hood stone is the dome shaped megalithic burial monument usually built with dressed orthostatic laterite stone slab resting with its flat face directly on a number of hood - stones at the ground level. The monument is surrounded by circle of laterite stones covering at the top.
8. Rock-Cut-Caves Tombs
Source: Megalithics in Kerala. Markazhi
The megalithic rock-cut tomb has been found in many places in Kerala 1. Mukranmoola in the Neykuppa forest, under the Chethalayath forest range, in Wayanad district.
9. Topikal (Capstone or Hatstone)
The topikal (capstone or hatstone) is well known dome shaped megalithic monument found scattered in Tamil Nadu. The topical or capstone lies on four quaderantal clinostatic stones and connect them together at the base structure to a square.
IV. Megalithic Sites in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh (part) and Union Territory of Pondicherry (ASI Protected), State-wise list
This list published by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Chennai Circle (http://www.asichennai.gov.in/sites_full_list.html) serve as a single source of comprehensive information about the nature and location of various Megalithic burial sites - 1. Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles, and 2. Urn Burials including in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Union Territory of Pondicherry.
| Sl.No. | Name of the Site | Locality | District |
| TAMIL NADU | |||
| 1 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns in S.No.222 | Amirthamangalam | Tiruvallur |
| 2 | Virgin group containing many barrows | Attanthangal | Tiruvallur |
| 3 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Agaram | Kanchipuram |
| 4 | Megalithic Cists | Chedalpakkam | Tiruvallur |
| 5 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Guduvancheri | Kanchipuram |
| 6 | Group of Cairns | Kadapperi | Kanchipuram |
| 7 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kalvay | Kanchipuram |
| 8 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nanmangalam | Kanchipuram |
| 9 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Neyveli | Tiruvallur |
| 10 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nedungunram | Kanchipuram |
| 11 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Ottiyambakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 12 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Ottivakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 13 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pallavaram | Kanchipuram |
| 14 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Perungalathur | Kanchipuram |
| 15 | Urn Burials | Palavakkam | Tiruvallur |
| 16 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pammadukulam | Tiruvallur |
| 17 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Panchali | Tiruvallur |
| 18 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pondavakkam | Tiruvallur |
| 19 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pottur | Tiruvallur |
| 20 | Prehistoric settlement site Megalithic period | Pulal | Tiruvallur |
| 21 | Megalithic Cists with stone circles | Ponmar | Kanchipuram |
| 22 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pudupakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 23 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Perumbakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 24 | Group of Cairns and Cists | Sembakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 25 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sittalapakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 26 | Urn Burial and Megalithic Site | St. Thomas Mount | Kanchipuram |
| 27 | Cairns Site | Sengarai | Tiruvallur |
| 28 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Siruvadu | Tiruvallur |
| 29 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sengunram | Kanchipuram |
| 30 | Group of Cairns | Tiruneermalai | Kanchipuram |
| 31 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tirusulam | Kanchipuram |
| 32 | Megalithic Cist | Tiruneermalai | Kanchipuram |
| 33 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Unamanjeri | Kanchipuram |
| 34 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tadipadi | Tiruvallur |
| 35 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vanamalli | Tiruvallur |
| 36 | Megalithic Cists | Vandalur | Kanchipuram |
| 37 | Urn burial site | Kadagambattu | Villupuram |
| 38 | Megalithic Cairns and Stone circles | Sengamedu | Villupuram |
| 39 | Megalithic stone circles | Tiruvakkarai | Villupuram |
| 40 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Araiyapakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 41 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Echchur | Kanchipuram |
| 42 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Eluchur | Kanchipuram |
| 43 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Erumaiyur | Kanchipuram |
| 44 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Gudalur | Kanchipuram |
| 45 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Gunduperumbedu | Kanchipuram |
| 46 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Kadamalaiputhur | Kanchipuram |
| 47 | Chromlechs | Kadamalaiputhur | Kanchipuram |
| 48 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kattuputhur | Kanchipuram |
| 49 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Karanaithangal, Perinjambakkam, Kavalkalani | Kanchipuram |
| 50 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns on the hill | Kunnattur | Kanchipuram |
| 51 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Melaivaiyavur | Kanchipuram |
| 52 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Mampattu | Kanchipuram |
| 53 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Moosaivakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 54 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Maganiyam | Kanchipuram |
| 55 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Malaipattu | Kanchipuram |
| 56 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nandambakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 57 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Palliyagaram | Kanchipuram |
| 58 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Palayasivaram | Kanchipuram |
| 59 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Perunagar | Kanchipuram |
| 60 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sanur | Kanchipuram |
| 61 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Settupattu | Kanchipuram |
| 62 | Megalithic Cairns with Stone Circles and Sarcophagi | Sikkarayapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 63 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sirukalattur | Kanchipuram |
| 64 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tandalam | Kanchipuram |
| 65 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tattanur | Kanchipuram |
| 66 | Dolmens site | Uttiramerur | Kanchipuram |
| 67 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vaiyavur | Kanchipuram |
| 68 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Venpakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 69 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vadakkuppattu | Kanchipuram |
| 70 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vadamangalam | Kanchipuram |
| 71 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Agaram | Kanchipuram |
| 72 | Urn Burials | Alattur | Kanchipuram |
| 73 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Amur | Kanchipuram |
| 74 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Anur | Kanchipuram |
| 75 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Ayyanjeri | Kanchipuram |
| 76 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Atcharavakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 77 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Edakunram | Kanchipuram |
| 78 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns with stone circles | Kalanipakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 79 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kalathur | Kanchipuram |
| 80 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kanakapattu | Kanchipuram |
| 81 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kandalur | Kanchipuram |
| 82 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kilampakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 83 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kottamedu | Kanchipuram |
| 84 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kumili | Kanchipuram |
| 85 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kunnavakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 86 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Kuravanmedu | Kanchipuram |
| 87 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Madaiayattur | Kanchipuram |
| 88 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Mayilai | Kanchipuram |
| 89 | Two unfinished excavations near the Light house | Mamallapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 90 | Unfinished excavations near triple celled rock cut shrine | Mamallapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 91 | Unfinished excavations south of Draupadi bath | Mamallapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 92 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Manamai | Kanchipuram |
| 93 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Melkottaiyur | Kanchipuram |
| 94 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Naduvakkarai | Kanchipuram |
| 95 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nandivaram | Kanchipuram |
| 96 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nattam | Kanchipuram |
| 97 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nellikuppam | Kanchipuram |
| 98 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Olalur | Kanchipuram |
| 99 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Padur | Kanchipuram |
| 100 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Paranur | Kanchipuram |
| 101 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Porundavakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 102 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns bounded with stone circles | Pulipakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 103 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Pundi | Kanchipuram |
| 104 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns circumbscribed by stone circles | Rajakulipettai | Kanchipuram |
| 105 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns circumscribed by stone circles | Rayalpattu | Kanchipuram |
| 106 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sastirampakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 107 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sembakkam | Kanchipuram |
| 108 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Settipuniyam | Kanchipuram |
| 109 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sirudavur | Kanchipuram |
| 110 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Sirukunram | Kanchipuram |
| 111 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tirupporur | Kanchipuram |
| 112 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Tiruvadi sulam | Kanchipuram |
| 113 | Megalithic cairns and cists with stone circles | Vallanjeri | Kanchipuram |
| 114 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns circumscribed by stone circles | Vedanarayanapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 115 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vembedu | Kanchipuram |
| 116 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Vengur | Kanchipuram |
| 117 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Venkitapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 118 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Venpakkam (Village No.69) | Kanchipuram |
| 119 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Venpakkam (Village No.273) | Kanchipuram |
| 120 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Virapuram | Kanchipuram |
| 121 | Excavated Site, Kambarmedu | Melaiyur | Nagapattinam |
| 122 | Mandapakkadu(structure with mound) | Chettipalayam | Coimbatore |
| 123 | Pre-historic site(known as Pandava graves) | Kanyampundi | Coimbatore |
| 124 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Karai | Perambalur |
| 125 | Dolmens | Chokkanathapatti | Pudukkottai |
| 126 | Pre-historic burial site | Melur | Pudukkottai |
| 127 | Pre-historic Dolemns | Perungalur | Pudukkottai |
| 128 | Pre-historic burial site | Puttambur | Pudukkottai |
| 129 | Cairns and Urns | Sendakudy | Pudukkottai |
| 130 | Pre-historic burials | Thekkattur | Pudukkottai |
| 131 | Kalasakkadu burial site | Tirukkattalai | Pudukkottai |
| 132 | Pre-historic site | Adichanallur | Toothukudi |
| 133 | Pre-historic site | Kalvoi | Toothukudi |
| 134 | Pre-historic site | Karungulam | Toothukudi |
| 135 | Dolmens near Palamalai | Adukkam | Dindigul |
| 136 | Dolmens near Machur reserved forest | Pannaikkadu | Dindigul |
| 137 | Dolmens near Machur | Pannaikkadu | Dindigul |
| 138 | Dolmens near Talayar river on the top of the hill | Pannaikkadu | Dindigul |
| 139 | Dolmens | Vilpatti | Dindigul |
| 140 | Dolmens and Cairns | Amburapatti | Pudukkottai |
| 141 | Pre-historic burial site(Known as Kurangupattarai) | Ammachatram | Pudukkottai |
| 142 | Pre-historic burial site, stone circles and Menhirs | Annavasal | Pudukkottai |
| 143 | Dolmens | Kilaiyur | Pudukkottai |
| 144 | Dolmens | Muttampatti | Pudukkottai |
| 145 | Pre-historic burial site | Narangiyanpettai | Pudukkottai |
| 146 | Pre-historic Dolmens | Peyal | Pudukkottai |
| 147 | Dolmens and Ayyanar Image | Poyyamai Virudupatti | Pudukkottai |
| 148 | Pre-historic burial site | Satyamangalam | Pudukkottai |
| 149 | Dolmens and Urns | Sengalur | Pudukkottai |
| 150 | Dolmens in Annavasal Vattam | Sittannavasal | Pudukkottai |
| 151 | Dolmens(known as Kurangupattarai) | Thayinipatti | Pudukkottai |
| 152 | Group of Dolmens | Tiruppur | Pudukkottai |
| 153 | Pre-historic burial site | Vadugapatti | Pudukkottai |
| 154 | Pre-historic burial site | Vathanakurichi | Pudukkottai |
| 155 | Pre-historic burial site | Vilapatti | Pudukkottai |
| 156 | Pre-historic site | Mottur | Thrivannamalai |
| 157 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Nedungal | Thrivannamalai |
| 158 | Megalithic Cists | Tellur | Thrivannamalai |
| 159 | Megalithic Cists | Tetturai | Thrivannamalai |
| 160 | Megalithic Cists | Venkunnam | Thrivannamalai |
| ANDHRA PRADESH | |||
| 1 | Megalithic Cairns with bounding stone circles | Pandur | Chittur |
| 2 | Megalithic Cists and Cairns | Birakuppam | Chittur |
| UNION TERRITORY OF PUDUCHERRY | |||
| 1 | Early historic site | Arikamedu | Pondicherry |
Reference
- A History of ancient and early medieval India from stone age to the 12th century. Upinder Singh. 2009 p.425 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA425&lpg=PA425&dq=sangam+age+megaliths&source=bl&ots=QfSdEsT1Ga&sig=nfJPw5uzJf8bJn1OEBFdU52LCcY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NjWwUtziBoX8rAePiYDQDA&ved=0CCoQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=sangam%20age%20megaliths&f=false
- Champakalakshmi.R, 'Archaeology and Tamil literary tradition. Puratattva. 8 : 1 10-22. 1996
- Cromlech. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromlech
- Dolmens, Hero Stones and the Dravidian People. Nagaswamy.R. http://tamilnation.co/heritage/dolmens.htm
- Dolmen. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolmen
- Fifth ‘hero’ stone with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found Indian Express. 31st July 2012 http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/article579686.ece
- History of Tamil Nau. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu
- Iron Age burial site found near Tiruvannamalai. Subramaniyan, TS. The Hindu June 26, 2011. http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/iron-age-burial-site-found-near-tiruvannamalai/article2135078.ece
- More pre-historic burial sites found in Tirunelveli district The Hindu March 9, 2010. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/more-prehistoric-burial-sites-found-in-tirunelveli-district/article221358.ece
- Pre - and Protohistoric Andhrapradesh upto 500 B.C. Andhrapradesh History Congress. Murthy,MLK. ed. Orient Longman. 2003 http://books.google.co.in/books?id=yK8D8c5-HXAC&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=megalithic+cists+and+cairns+with+stone+circles&source=bl&ots=RSc283mzqR&sig=Vl15CAK-gxgqAEoXA8JNYyCvBrQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=SuStUtnhG8LarAen5YGADA&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=megalithic%20cists%20and%20cairns%20with%20stone%20circles&f=false
- Reading the past in a more inclusive way. Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20060127003610200.htm&date=fl2301/&prd=fline&
- Steps to preserve megalithic burial site. The Hindu October 6, 2006. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/steps-to-preserve-megalithic-burial-site/article3057355.ece
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