Food in Sangam Literature 3: Rice and Millet in Sangam Tamil Cuisine

Civilization in the Ancient Indus River Valley

Agriculture and the tillers of the soil are the linch-pin of the revolving world (உழுவார் உலகத்தார்க்கு ஆணி). Agriculture was the main vocation of Sangam Tamils and necessity of their life. Therefore they bestowed maximum attention upon agriculture. Tirukural devotes an entire chapter on agriculture (ref. couplets 1031 - 1040). Tiruvalluvar extols the glory and greatness of agriculture and farmers:

சுழன்றும்ஏர்ப் பின்னது உலகம் அதனால் 

உழந்தும் உழவே தலை. (Tirukural 1031)

Agriculture, though laborious, is the most excellent (form of labour); for people, though they go about (in search of various employments), have at last to resort to the farmer

உழுதுண்டு வாழ்வாரே வாழ்வார் மற்றெல்லாம் 

தொழுதுண்டு பின் செல்லுவார். (Tirukural 1033)

They alone live who live by agriculture; all others lead a cringing, dependent life. 

Cultivation of the food crops would have started in the 'Neostone age.' Archaeological evidences confirm that earliest cultivation in ancient Tamilakam would have started in the last phase of the 'Neostone age.' The farmers of this age cultivated crops such as rice, millets, various grams, beans, tamarind, sugarcane,  plantain, coconuts,  pepper,  cotton, and sandalwood. Sangam literature has references about use of iron agricultural tools and the farmlands were supported by water bodies such as tanks, wells and irrigation canals.

We have already noted about the existence of five geographical divisions of the Tamil country in Sangam literature i.e., Vanpulam or hardland (Mullai and Kurinji), Menpulam or fertile land (Marutam), Pinpulam  or dry land (Mullai, Palai) and Kalarnilam or Uvarnilam or Salty land (Neital). The kinds of soil known during Sangam age included the alluvial soil, red soil, black soil, laterite soil and sandy soil and they knew what crops could be grown on each type of soil. Sangam literature has abundant references about agriculture. Purananuru, Perumpanatruppadai, Porunaratruppadai, Pattinappalai and Mathuraikanchi lines are shown here to depict the prosperity of Sangam era Tamilakam.

ஏர் பரந்த வயல் நீர் பரந்த செறுவின்
நெல் மலிந்த மனைப் பொன் மலிந்த மறுகின்
Purananuru 338, Poet: Kundrur Kilar Makanar,
Like Ponthai city of Neduvel Athan, with wide, plowed watery fields, houses filled with rice paddy, streets with gold, and groves with bees buzzing many flowers, she has great wealth.

நிலன் நெளி மருங்கின் நீர்நிலை பெருகத்
தட்டோர் அம்ம இவண் தட்டோரே
தள்ளாதோர் இவண் தள்ளாதோரே.
Purananuru 18, Poet Kudapulaviyanar sang to Pandiyan Thalaiyalankanathu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan,
O Cheliyan of murderous battles!  You should not disdain my advice, but act quickly!  Those who harnessed the flowing waters and built dams on land with depressions have established their glory! Those who have built none will have no enduring fame in this world! Civilization in the Ancient Indus River Valley

Pattinappalai depicts the king's intention to destroy forests and convert them into paddy fields.

காடு கொன்று நாடாக்கிக்

குளம் தொட்டு வளம் பெருக்கிப்

 (Pattinappalai 283 -84) 

The King Cholan Karikalan who Brought Prosperity to his Country: Cholan Karikalan destroyed forests and made them habitable, dug ponds, expanded his capital city of Uranthai

Prosperity of Mathurai as shown Mathuraikanchi:

மழை தொழில் உதவ மாதிரம் கொழுக்க

தொடுப்பின் ஆயிரம் வித்தியது விளைய

நிலனும் மரனும் பயன் எதிர்பு நந்த

 (Mathuraikanchi 10 – 12)

Without fault, rains help, the land thrives everywhere, one seed yields thousands, and land and trees give abundant benefits.

நீர்த் தெவ்வும் நிரைத் தொழுவர்

பாடு சிலம்பு இசை ஏற்றத்

தோடு வழங்கும் அகல் ஆம்பியின்

கயன் அகைய வயல் நிறைக்கும்

மென் தொடை வன் கிழாஅர்

அதரி கொள்பவர் பகடு பூண் தெள்மணி

 (Mathuraikanchi 89 – 94)

On the seashore filled with sand and sapphire colored mundakam flowers, there are sounds of those singing as they draw water rapidly with their wide buckets to water the fields, along with those

from strong water-lifts with delicately tied strings, as the ponds become dry.  There are jingling sounds from the clear bells on bulls that thresh. 

வெள்ளம் மாறாது விளையுள் பெருக

நெல்லின் ஓதை அரிநர் கம்பலை

 (Mathuraikanchi 109 – 110)

Splendor of Muthu Vellilai town: In your Muthu Vellilai town, the waterflows in your rivers do not change, harvests are abundant, and rustling sounds of grain spears are heard.

நல்லேர் நடந்த நசைசால் விளைவயல்

(Mathuraikanchi 173)

Where fine bulls walked to plow the yielding field

Porunaratruppadai

கூனிக் குயத்தின் வாய் நெல் அரிந்து

சூடு கோடாகப் பிறக்கி நாள் தொறும்

குன்று எனக் குவைஇய குன்றாக் குப்பை

Porunaratruppadai 242 - 48) 

Prosperity showered by River Kāviri: Women bend and cut paddy with sickles, and bundles of sheaves are stacked each day like mountains, in heaps that never become small.

Perumpanatruppadai

மிதி உலைக் கொல்லன் முறி கொடிற்று அன்ன

கவைத்தாள் அலவன் அளற்று அளை சிதைய

பைஞ்சாய் கொன்ற மண்படு மருப்பின்

கார் ஏறு பொருத கண்அகன் செறுவின்

உழாஅ நுண் தொளி நிரவிய வினைஞர்

முடிநாறழுத்திய நெடுநீர்ச் செறு 

(Perumpanatruppadai 206-212)

Dark colored oxen with sand on their horns from fighting with each other ruin the reeds and the mud holes of crabs with forked legs, resembling broken tongs used by a metalsmith who blows softleather bellows by pressing a treadle with his feet. Workers walk on fine mud and prepare the land without plowing and press down the paddy seedlings in the fields with abundant water

ஒரு பிடி படியுஞ் சீறிடம்

எழு களிறு புரக்கும் நாடு கிழவோயே.

Purananuru 40, Poet Avur Moolankilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan,

O lord of the country where a small space fit for a female elephant produces food for seven male elephants!

To remove the poverty of his relatives, the peasant obtained low yielding kodo millet on loan. Purananuru poem 327 portrays the condition of the peasant even during Sangam era. 

எருது கால் உறாஅது இளைஞர் கொன்ற
சில்விளை வரகின் புல்லென் குப்பை
தொடுத்த கடவர்க்குக் கொடுத்த மிச்சில்
பசித்த பாணர் உண்டு கடை தப்பலின்
ஒக்கல் ஒற்கம் சொலியத் தன்னூர்ச்
சிறு புல்லாளர் முகத்தவை கூறி
வரகுடன் இரக்கும் நெடுந்தகை
அரசு வரின் தாங்கும் வல்லாளன்னே.
Purananuru 327, Poet: Unknown,
After giving besieging creditors their due share, the noble man who had the strength to repel kings had a small heap of low-yielding millet, stamped by youngsters, without bulls touching them to thresh, that was eaten up by hungry bards. Since no one came to his gate, in order to remove the poverty of his relatives, he told petty minded men what he needed and borrowed millet from them.

Another Purananuru poem 333 depicts the peasant's suffering due to poverty. They lead a miserable life. In this house the peasant householder has spent all the common millet by serving millet meals to the bards. He don't want to leave his guest with hungry stomach. So the couple decided to cook the clusters of millet preserved as a seed for sowing. The housewife hand pounded the millet and cooked the food and served to the bard.

வரகும் தினையும் உள்ளவை எல்லாம்
இரவல் மாக்கள் உணக்கொளத் தீர்ந்தெனக்
குறித்துமாறு எதிர்ப்பை பெறாஅ மையின்
குரல் உணங்கு விதைத் தினை உரல்வாய்ப் பெய்து
சிறிது புறப்பட்டன்றோவிலளே தன்னூர்

Purananuru 333, Poet: Unknown,

O poets, because the housewife, since all her common millet and little millet have been given to those in need, and unable to give anything else, will set the clusters of millets that was set aside for seed on her pounding stone, and feed you, before she lets you go.

Tolkappiyam on Food

Tolkappiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்) is the earliest available grammatical work in Tamil. It is composed in the form of short formulaic compositions a.k.a noorpaa (நூற்பா). Its three books include the Ezhuttadikaram, the Solladikaram and the Poruladikaram. In the third book Poruladikaram (பொருளதிகாரம்), Marapiyal (மரபியல்) chapter, noorpaa (நூற்பா) 623 defines about eight kinds of food:

“மெய் திரி வகையின் எண்வகை உணவில் செய்தியும் உரையார்” (Tolkappiyam, Poruladikaram, Marapiyal, Noorpaa 623) 

Ilampooranar ( இளம்பூரணர்), a commentator of Tolkappiyam interprets the eight kinds of food as eight kinds of cereals: paddy (நெல்), horse gram (காணம்), kodo millet (வரகு), great millet (இறுங்கு), fox-tail millet (தினை), little millet (சாமை), forage (புல்) and wheat (கோதுமை). North Indian classical literature classifies food into eight different categories: cereals (Sugadayana), lentils (samidayana), vegetables (sakna), fruits (pala), spices (appiyam), dairy products (bayovarga), meat (mamsa varga) and intoxicating liquor (madhya varga)  Food was cooked based on these eight categories. Perhaps this type of cooking would have made in the royal kitchens and wealthy mansions. 

As per Tamil tradition food is generally categorized in five kinds. Pingala Nigandu, a Tamil thesaurus written by Pingala Munivar in 10th century A.D., cites five actions of eating i.e., feel the salty taste using the tip of the tongue (கறித்தல்), lick (நக்கல்), drink (பருகல்), swallow (விழுங்கல்) and mastication (மெல்லல்), This seminal text Tolkappiyam refers food as "உணா " (Una).  Pingala Nigandu also cites various Tamil words related to food and they include:  

 “உணாவே வல்சி உண்டி ஓதனம்

அசனம் பகதம் இசை ஆசாரம்

உறை, ஊட்டம்”

Two more words "புகா" and  "மிசை" also refer to food. 

Millets

Millet can be defined as ‘any of several species of cereal grasses in the family Poaceae.’ Millet was believed as one of the oldest human food and considered to be the first domesticated cereal crops. Though it is not easy to cognize the exact origin, it is accepted to a great extent that millet was domesticated and cultivated simultaneously in Asia and Africa during the Neolithic era. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) probably originated in southern Asia and is the oldest of the cultivated millet. Greek historian Herodotus has recorded about the millet growing Assyria. In Egyptian civilization ancient Egyptians was knowledgeable in growing millet in the  arid Sahara around 3000 BC. 

In some places, particularly Gujarat, Indus Valley peasants cultivated some native millet; possibly broomcorn millet, which may have been introduced from southern Central Asia. In Sangam period the inhabitants of Mullai (pastoral) tracts cultivated  Kodo millet or varagu (Paspalum Scrobiculatum), Italian millet or tinai ( Satariaitalica) and samai (Panicum Milliare) as well as pulses like horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) and legumes like beans, lentils and tamarind.

Rice

Rice (grass species Oryzasativa or Oryzaglaberrima.), one of the oldest known crops to have been cultivated by man, has fed more people over a longer period of time than any other crop. Rice, believed to have domesticated from the wild grass Oryza rufipogon roughly 10,000–14,000 years ago, is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world’s human population, especially in Asia. 

Based on archaeological evidence, rice was believed to have been first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China. Later on rice cultivation spread throughout Sri Lanka, and India. It was then passed onto Greece and areas of the Mediterranean. Rice spread throughout Southern Europe and to some parts of North Africa. 

During Neolithic revolution (8000 - 4000 B.C.) agriculture was far from the dominant mode of support for human societies. Indian agriculture and domestication of crops and animals commenced in 9000 B.C. Barley and wheat cultivation was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000 - 6000 B.C. The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.  Wild rice cultivation appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 B.C. and 5440 B.C. respectively. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Harrappan regions.

Sangam Tamil Cuisine

During Sangam period marutam region was much suitable for cultivation of main food crops. The staple food of the Sangam Tamils have been rice, supplemented with various vegetables and meat.  Paddy was the main crop and different varieties of paddy such as Aivanam (ஐவனம்), Chenjali (செஞ்சாலி), Chennel (செந்நெல்), Chol (சொல்), Iyavai (இயவை),  Torai (தோரை), Vari  (வரி) etc., Chennel and Pudunel were the more refined varieties.  

Rice Varieties

Cooked rice was known in different names in Sangam literature. Choodamani Nigandu (சூடாமணி நிகண்டு), Tamil thesaurus lists out related terms: Atisil (அடிசில்), அமலை (Amalai), Amizhthu (அமிழ்து), Annam (அன்னம்), Arru (அற்று), Asanam (அசனம்), Ayini (அயினி),  Avi (அவி), Avizh (அவிழ்),   Azhini (அழினி),  Othanam (ஓதனம்),  Un (ஊண்),  Una (உணா), Undi (உண்டி), Kondri (கொன்றி), Kuzh (கூழ்), Madai (மடை), Mural (மூரல்),   Misai (மிசை), Mithavai (மிதவை),  Nimiral (நிமிரல்), Palitham (பாளிதம்), Parukkai (பருக்கை), Patham (பதம்), Pathu (பாத்து), Pomman (பொம்மன்), Ponagam (போனகம்),   Puka (புகா), Punkam (புன்கம்), Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்),   Saru (சரு),  Sondri (சொன்றி),   Soru (சோறு),  Thori (தோரி), Thurru (துற்று) and Valsi (வல்சி).

Cooked raw rice (பச்சரிசி) was known as 'pongal' and the cooked boiled rice (புழுங்கல் அரிசி) was known as 'puzhungal (புழுங்கல்).' Cooked rice soaked in water is well known as 'kanji' (கஞ்சி). Pingala Nigandu also cites various Tamil words related to kanji and the list includes kadi (காடி), mozhai (மோழை), and suvaku (சுவாகு). 

Un Choru (ஊன் சோறு)

tamarind broth (புளிக்குழம்பு)

Un Choru (ஊன் சோறு) - seasoned rice cooked with meat; Ghee Choru (நெய்ச்சோறு) - rice cooked with ghee in a glutinous consistency; Milk Choru (பாற்சோறு) - rice cooked with boiled milk in a glutinous consistency; Puli-Choru (புளிச்சோறு) cooked rice mixed with tamarind broth (புளிக்குழம்பு); White rice (வெண்சோறு) fine cooked rice; Blood rice (செஞ்சோறு) cooked rice mixed with blood of the animal under sacrifice. 

Great Feast

In Tamil grammar Perunchorru Nilai (பெருஞ்சோற்று நிலை) is defined as part of Vanji tinai, a puram tinai. The king used to host the great feast to his brave soldiers before going to the battlefield. The victorious soldiers returning from the battlefield were also honored with great feast. Tolkappiyam refers this as "பிண்டம் மேய பெருஞ்சோற்று நிலை."

பெருஞ்சோற்று மிகுபதம் வரையாது கொடுத்தோய் (Purananuru 2)

Broth (குழம்பு)

Broth (குழம்பு), a concentrated sauce was cooked in Sangam Tamil kitchens and used as side dish. The main course was white cooked rice. Broth is a savory liquid made of water in which vegetables have been simmered. Pingala Nigandu, a Tamil thesaurus refer two Tamil words for broth i.e., Paku (பாகு), Aanam (ஆணம்)  They have used tamarind pulp and lentils (dhal) to prepare broth. Kuruntokai (poem 167) describes one such broth cooked by the heroine in a Sangam Tamil kitchen.

முளி தயிர் பிசைந்த காந்தள் மெல் விரல்,

கழுவுறு கலிங்கம், கழாஅது, உடீஇ,

குவளை உண்கண் குய்ப்புகை கழுமத்

தான் துழந்து அட்ட தீம் புளிப் பாகர்

''இனிது'' எனக் கணவன் உண்டலின்,

நுண்ணிதின் மகிழ்ந்தன்று ஒண்ணுதல் முகனே.

(Kuruntokai 167; Poet Kudalur Kilar)

(Step mother of the heroine speaks with her own mother. (செவிலித்தாய், நற்றாய்க்கு உரைத்தது)

She mashed thick curds with her delicate fingers that resemble glory lily petals, and wiped them on her clothes without washing them. Smoke from her cooking spread around and touched her kohl-lined eyes that are like blue waterlilies.

She cooked sweet tamarind curry that he enjoyed and ate. Her face revealed her happiness in a delicate manner, the young woman with a bright forehead.

தீம்புளிப் பாகர்= broth mixed with thick curd and tamarind pulp and seasoned with spices. Peppercorns, coriander seeds, black Jaggery, tender coconut, honey, ginger, turmeric, tamarind, mustard seeds, ghee were the ingredients used by Sangam Tamils.. Onion, tomatoes, green chilly, red chilly, bell pepper, garlic, cloves, refined oil, white sugar, tea leaves, coffee beans, tobacco, areca nut etc., were not available during Sangam age. These ingredients were introduced by foreign traders between 15th and 16th century A.D. They have used mustard to season the broth. They have used beans (அவரை) constantly to prepare sour broth (புளிக்குழம்பு). 

1. Atisil (அடிசில்) 

Rice over cooked  glutinous rice. It tends to stick. It has the properties of adhesive. Example Akkara Atisil (Over cooked glutinous sweet rice) 

Akkara Atisi (Sweet Pongal)

Milk Atsil (Milk Rice)

குறுகுறு நடந்து சிறுகை நீட்டி

இட்டும் தொட்டும் கவ்வியும் துழந்தும்

நெய்யுடை அடிசில் மெய்பட விதிர்த்தும்

மயக்குறு மக்களை இல்லோர்க்குப்

பயக்குறை இல்லைத் தாம் வாழும் நாளே.    

(Purananuru 188: 3-6 Poet:  Pandian Arivudai Nampi)

He has not lived usefully in all his days, unless, he has fascinating children who can walk up to him in little steps, stretch out their tiny hands for food, set it down, touch and chew it, knead and smear rice and ghee all over themselves, interrupting his meals

Ghee Atisil (Ghee Rice)

புதுக்கலத்தன்ன செவ்வாய்ச் சிற்றில்

புனையிரும் கதுப்பின் நின் மனையோள் அயரப்

பாலுடை அடிசில் தொடீஇய ஒருநாள்

மாவண் தோன்றல்! வந்தனை சென்மோ! – அகம் 394/9-12

(Akananuru 394: 2-6, Nanpalur Sirumethaviyar,)

Oh great generous lord, please come for a day  to your small house with a front yard as red as a new clay pot, thorn fences and a pavilion with bent legs, where your wife with black, braided hair will serve you a meal with milk.

Raw rice cooked to glutinous consistency and being served with wooden ladle. The steaming rice dollop is now in the plate. The steaming spicy mutton gravy being poured on the rice scoop.  

குய் குரல் மலிந்த கொழும் துவை அடிசில்

இரவலர்த் தடுத்த வாயில் புரவலர் 

Purananuru 250: 1-2, Poet: Thayankanniyar

The sounds of cooking abundant rich food with spices used to stop those who came for alms at the door, preventing their leaving. 

Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan. Kumamanan was the chieftain of Mutiram hills. The poet went to Kumanan and received abundant gift. The chieftain also served glutinous rice and the simmering broth with fatty meat and seasoned with ghee and spices. The spicy food prevents the bard from returning home.

குய் கொள் கொழும் துவை நெய்யுடை அடிசில்

மதி சேர் நாள்மீன் போல நவின்ற

சிறு பொன் நன் கலம் சுற்ற இரீஇ -

Purananuru 160: 7 - 9, Poet Perunchithiranar sang to Kumanan

Kumanan will place fatty meat cooked with spices and ghee on small gold bowls marked by constant use like stars that surround

the moon

Poet Avvaiyar sang on Athiyaman Neduman Anji. Athiyaman Neduman Anji was a Sangam Age chieftain who ruled Thakadur region. He was known for his valour and generosity. Poet Avvaiyar is in praise of the chieftain. The Chieftain served nectar like tasty food to the poet and the bards who visited the Chieftain's palace. 

“அமிழ்தன மரபின் ஊன்துவை அடிசில்

வெள்ளி வெண் கலத்து ஊட்டல் அன்றி”

      ( Purananuru 390: 17 - 18, Poet Avvaiyar sang for Athiyaman Neduman Anji)
He gave joy-giving toddy according to tradition and nectar-like tasty food with minced meat dishes in a white silver bowl.

In Pathitrupattu fifth ten poems 41 - 50 were composed by Poet Paranar sang on Kadal Pirakottiya Senguttuvan. In poem 45 the poet describes the hospitality extended by the Chera king. The king offered nectar like minced meat and rice in a silver bowl.          -

“சோறு வேறு என்னா ஊன் துவை அடிசில்

ஓடா பீடர் உள் வழி இறுத்து”
(Patitrupattu 45: 13 - 14)
You dined in the company of your warriors, proud men who did not run away from battles, feeding them abundant meat and rice cooked together.

2. Amalai (அமலை)

Amalai (அமலை) means overabundant or copious or plentious. Sangam poems refer Amalai for overabundant rice. Cholan Nalankilli offered the heap of rice mixed with meat.  

ஊன் சோற்று அமலை பாண் கடும்பு அருத்தும் - புறம் 33/14

Purananuru 33, Poet Kovur Kilar sang to Cholan Nalankilli,  
The families of bards are nourished with overabundant rice mixed with meat

அமலை கொழும் சோறு ஆர்ந்த பாணர்க்கு 

Purananuru 34: 14, Poet Alathur Kilar sang to Cholan Kulamutrathu Thunjiya Killivalavan  
“May he live long, our king Valavan, who gives with an open mind abundant wealth to bards who utter sweet words and eat huge heap of rich, cooked rice mixed with honey and millet grown in dry fields, that are as large as the eggs of pigeons, with cooked rabbit meat.”

3. Ayini (அயினி)

Ayini means dining the unlimited amount of food.  

துவரப் புலர்ந்து தூ மலர் கஞலித்

தகரம் நாறுந் தண் நறுங்கதுப்பின்

புது மண மகடூஉ அயினிய கடி நகர்ப்

பல் கோட்டு அடுப்பில் பால் உலை இரீஇ

(Akananuru 141: 12 -15. Poet Kapilar)

A small-bangled bride with fragrant 'thakaram' paste in her soft hair joins other women and boils milk on a stove with many sides.  

4. Una (உணா) means cooked rice 

பணை நிலைப் புரவி புல் உணாத் தெவிட்ட – Mathuraikanji 660

elephant keepers hand feed rice balls of food to their fierce male elephants in the stables,

சில் உணா தந்த சீறூர்ப் பெண்டிர் – Akananuru 283: 5

women from a small village bring food from the forest where they wander

5. Undi (உண்டி)

Undi (உண்டி) in general means food. Kuruntokai 156: 1-4 considers that those who consume undi (food) after observing fast from morning. Purananuru poem 18 states that those who gave undi (food) gave life. Undi means consuming undi (food) after observing fast or intake after feeling hungry.

கிணைமகள் அட்ட பாவற் புளிங்கூழ்

பொழுது மறுத்துண்ணும் உண்டியேன் அழிவு கொண்டு

(Akananuru 141: 12 -15. Poet Kapilar)

I will not leave him.  I will not.  I will not look at other faces. I, who eats food at improper times, ate the watery sour gruel given by a drummer woman who sold fish that she caught with a long pole.

Undi (உண்டி) Food Ready to eat

உண்டி கொடுத்தோர் உயிர்கொடுத்தோரே 

உண்டி முதற்றே உணவின் பிண்டம்

(Purananuru 18:19)

Those who give food give them life.  Food is foremost to this body built of food.

உண்டி சுருங்குதல் பெண்டிர்க்கு அழகு
(Poet Avvaiyar. Aphorism of Kondrai Vendhan)
Moderate eating makes a woman pretty

“மாறுபாடு இல்லாத உண்டி மறுத்துஉண்ணின்

ஊறுபாடு இல்லை உயிர்க்கு”

                                        (Tirukural 945)                

With self-denial take the well-selected meal; So shall thy frame no sudden sickness feel.

கிணைமகள் அட்ட பாகல் புளிங்கூழ் 

பொழுதுமறுத்துண்ணும் உண்டியேன் (Purananuru 399:16,17)

cooked in a bright pot with fermented gruel, with vallai leaves from fields, fatty big pieces of horned fish, large pieces of varal fish,

Meaning: There will be no disaster to one's life if one eats with moderation, food that is not disagreeable.

6. Un or Oon (ஊண்) 

Un or Oon (ஊண்) means food in general. Also cooked rice. It refers eating. Also the word means meat. (ஊன்).

தவச் சிறிதாயினும் மிகப் பலர் என்னான்

நீள் நெடும் பந்தர் ஊண் முறை ஊட்டும் (Purananuru 331:7,8)

Even though he has very little, he gives what he can, like a woman in a house who gives food under a pavilion in an orderly manner.

“ஊனும் ஊணும் முனையின் இனிதெனப்

பாலிற் பெய்தவும் பாகிற் கொண்டவும்

அளவுபு கலந்து மெல்லிது பருகி

விருந்துஉறுத்து ஆற்ற இருந்தனெ மாக” 

                                      (Puranānuru 381, Poet Puranthinai Nannakanar sang for Karumpanur Kilan) 
When we were tired of eating meat (ஊன்) and food (ஊண்) along with sugar syrup mixed with rice in perfect proportions, enjoying his hospitality and having no hunger, we said to him, “Lord,we are leaving for our country with festivals!”

         

7. Karunai (கருனை)

Karunai (கருனை) means food fried with either ghee or oil. 

கருங்கண் கருனை செந்நெல் வெண்சோறு (Natrinai. 367: 3, Poet Nakkeerar)

Female crow calls its flocks to eat food offerings of fine white rice and karunai yam with black spots, that have been left for gods

Venison meat cut into chunks and fried and roasted with oil.

மண்டைய கண்ட மான் வறை கருனை 

(Purananuru 398: 24, Poet Thiruthamanar sang for Cheraman Vanjan) 

 To me and my family, he gave venison to eat along with rice as long as a stork’s claw, the same food that he ate.

பசுங்கண் கருனை சூட்டொடு மாந்தி 

Puranānuru 395: 37,  Poet Mathurai Nakkeerar sang for Cholanattu Pidavur Kilarmakan Perunchathan
those who eat cooked fresh vegetables and meat along with boiled rice grains 

பரல் வறை கருனை காடியின் மிதப்ப 

(Porunaratruppadai 115 Poet Mudathamakkaniyar sang on Cholan Karikalan
One day, he gave me boiled rice that looked like jasmine buds, all the grains of same size, unbroken, with no streaks, and long like fingers, along with stir-fried dishes, resembling like gem stones.

8. Kali (களி)

Kali means paste like food prepared using flours of ragi (finger millet), tinai (fox-tail millet). It was a wholesome meal during Sangam era. It was enjoyed by people of strata. The millet flour is added slowly in a boiling water and stirred with a ladle to a paste like consistency.

Ragi Kali (ராகி களி)

அவையா அரிசி அம் களி துழவை 

(Perumpatruppadai 275 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)
when you are hungry, you will receive freshly cooked fish and fine, fragrant liquor that is made by making a mash of unpounded, boiled rice spread on pots with wide mouths to cool,
அவையா அரிசி – unpounded rice (அவைத்த அரிசி - pounded rice), அம் களித் துழவை – beautiful boiled mash, துழவை (mash).

துடுப்பொடு சிவணிய களி கொள் வெண் சோறு - புறம் 328:11

Purananuru 328, Poet: Unknown,
He will give you toddy, as sour as kalavu fruits, after he gives you dry pieces of meat cooked together with grains from plucked spears, and curds poured into a milk pot with ilanthai fruits, cooked with ghee, stirred with a ladle and served with white rice. துடுப்பொடு – with ladle, சிவணிய – stirred, களிக் கொள் – happily, வெண் சோறு – white rice

9. Sondri (சொன்றி) Cooked rice

Sangam era poems mean soru (சோறு) as cooked rice as well as the broth and the side dishes. Sondri (சொன்றி) is just the cooked rice or any millet. Sadham (சாதம்) (வடமொழி). Edible part of the paddy. (சொல்லுள் (நெல்லுள்) இருப்பது சோறு).

ஏற்றுக உலையே, ஆக்குக சோறே’ 

(Purananuru 172, Poet Vadama Vannakkan Thamōtharanar sang on Pittankotran)
Set the pot on the stove!  Cook the rice!

சுவல் விளை நெல்லின் செவ் அவிழ் சொன்றி 

(Perumpanatruppadai 131, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)
 In every home, you will be given red cooked rice of paddy grown on high land.

சுவல் விளை – growing on the high land, நெல்லின் செவ் அவிழ்ச் சொன்றி – red cooked rice of paddy

குறுந்தாள் வரகின் குறள் அவிழ் சொன்றி

(Perumpanatruppadai 193, Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)

You will receive a sweet tasting meal made with little millet (வரகரிசிச் சோறு) rice, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.

புன்புல வரகின் சொன்றியொடு பெறூஉம்

Puranānūru 197, Poet Kōnattu Erichalur Madalan Mathurai Kumaranar
He treats us well with cooked liitle millet (வரகரிசிச் சோறு) rice

புன்புல வரகின் – from the millet from dry fields, சொன்றியொடு பெறூஉம் – will get with the meal (millet),

10. Soru (சோறு) 

Soru (சோறு) means cooked rice or millet which forms the main course or the whole meals. 

எயிற்றியர் அட்ட இன் புளி வெம் சோறு - சிறு 175

(Sirupanatruppadai 175 Nallur Nathathanar. king Ōyman Nalliyakodan)
Eyitriyar Women living in the waste land cooked hot rice mixed with sweet tamarind  

வால் நிணம் உருக்கிய வாஅல் வெண் சோறு - அகம் 107/9

Akananuru107: 9, Kaviripoompattinathu Karikkannanar,
White fatty meat melted with pure white rice 

ஈயல் பெய்து அட்ட இன் புளி வெம் சோறு

Akananuru 394: 5, Nanpalur Sirumethuviyar,
White ants (winged) from a wet mound (ஈயல்) were collected and cooked with white rice after pouring sweet tamarind.

கறி சோறு ஊண்டு வருந்து தொழில் அல்லது

(Purananuru 14, Poet Kapilar sang to Cheraman Selva Kadunko Valiyathan)
Since they know no stress, other than that of eating rice cooked with meat, and chunks of fresh meat roasted in fire with flower-fragrant smoke.

நிணம் பெருத்த கொழும் சோற்று இடை - புறம் 384/14

Purananuru 384: 14, Poet Purathinai Nannakanar sang to Karampanur Kilan,
He pours ghee more freely than water on my rice with large pieces of fatty meat.

11. Thuzhavai (துழவை)

Semi-solid food (porridge) cooked using rice gruel or flours of millets. While cooking the porridge is well stirred with ladle. (துழாவியட்ட கூழ்). Its consistency is slightly looser than kali (களி).

Porridge well stirred with ladle. (துழாவியட்ட கூழ்)

அவையா அரிசி அம் களி துழவை 

(Perumpatruppadai 275 Poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar sang on Thondaimān Ilanthiraiyan)

when you are hungry, you will receive freshly cooked fish and fine, fragrant liquor that is made by making a mash of unpounded, boiled rice spread on pots with wide mouths to cool,

அவையா அரிசி – unpounded rice (அவைத்த அரிசி - pounded rice), அம் களித் துழவை – beautiful boiled mash, துழவை (mash).

12  நுவணை

Nuvaṇai means fineness. Flour obtained by hand pounding of rice and millets to fineness. (நன்கு இடித்த தனிய மாவு)  

Honey and Foxtail millet (தேனும் தினை மாவும்) - நுண் இடி நுவணை

 மென்றிணை நுவணை யுண்டு

(Ainkurunuru 285, Poet Kapilar). 

A mountain dweller’s daughter eats tender millet flour,

விசையம் கொழித்த பூழி அன்ன

உண்ணுநர்த் தடுத்த நுண் இடி நுவணை

Malaipadukadam 445,  Poet Perunkundroor Perunkousikanar sang on King Nannan Venmān.

Every day you will be given dishes made with fine millet flour mixed with sifted sugar powder

விசையம் கொழித்த பூழி அன்ன – like sifted powder made with sugar, உண்ணுநர்த் தடுத்த – blocking others from eating (other food), நுண் இடி நுவணை – finely powdered millet powder

13. Valci (வல்சி)

Valci means particular food consumed by particular people or animal for their survival. Whatever may be the stuff or its status i.e., plant, corn, cereals, lentils, flesh, uncooked or cooked, beverages. For farmers rice, millets, lentils, fish, crab etc are the food (valci).

Abundant food (குடிநிறை வல்சி)

குடி நிறை வல்சி செம் சால் உழவர்

(Perumpanatruppadai 197)

Farmers (plowmen) are in possession of abundant food (vaci) where plowmen who create perfect furrows.

குடிநிறை வல்சி – abundant food in the community, செஞ்சால் – those who make perfect furrows to plant seeds, உழவர் –  farmers, plowmen

.

வளம் செய் வினைஞர் வல்சி நல்க

(Malaipadukadam 462)

Women will serve you fish along with valci (cooked rice). Paddy produced  by farmers of the land who cause prosperity.

வளம் செய் வினைஞர் – the workers who cause prosperity, வல்சி நல்க – give food

விளைபதச் சீறிடம் நோக்கி, வளைகதிர்

வல்சி கொண்டு, அளை மல்க வைக்கும்

எலிமுயன் றனைய ராகி, 

(Purananuru 190, Cholan Nalluthiran,) 

rats that look for the maturation season and collect

heavy clusters of grains and fill up their holes!

வினைஞர் தந்த வெண்ணெல் வல்சி

(Perumpanatruppadai 255)

you will receive food cooked with white (cooked) rice brought by workers .

Minced meat plus beans chutney mixed Rice (ஊன் துவை வல்சி)

“செவ்வூன் தோன்றா வெண்துவை முதிரை

வால்ஊன் வல்சி”  

Pathitruppathu 55 Poet Poet: Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar sang on Cheran Adukōt Pattu Cheralathan
You are a body shield to your warriors
who eat white lentil chutney
and rice cooked with white meat
without any red meat.

                              

எறி மட மாற்கு வல்சி ஆகும்
Natrinai 6 Paranar
frolicking, delicate deer .eat ripe 'Kumilam' fruits with curved .tips that grow along the forest paths,
எறி மட மாற்கு – for the leaping innocent deer, வல்சி ஆகும் – will become food

Viands (பலகாரம்)

Kummayam  (கும்மாயம்)

Sangam Tamils have enjoyed delicious viands (பலகாரம்) or tiffin. Perumpanarrupadai refers about 'Kummayam'  (கும்மாயம்) prepared using lentils and jaggery. 

Kummayam

அவரை வான் புழுக்கு அட்டி பயில்வுற்று

இன்சுவை மூரல் பெறுகுவிர்  

(Perumpanattruppadai 194 - 195)

You will receive a sweet tasting meal made with small millet, looking like the large clusters of poolai flowers, cooked with white avarai beans.

பயிற்றுத் தன்மை கெடாது கும்மாயமியற்றி

(Manimekalai)

Mel Adai (மெல் அடை)

In Mathuraikanchi there are information about vendors selling  'Mel Adai (மெல் அடை) sweet dish prepared with rice and it appears like a honey comb. It also refers about 'Mothakam' prepared with rice dough with sugar syrup fillings

நல்வரி இறாஅல் புரையும் மெல் அடை

அயிர் உருப்பு உற்ற ஆடு அமை விசயம்

கவவொடு பிடித்த வகை அமை மோதகம்

தீஞ்சேற்றுக் கூவியர் தூங்குவனர் உறங்க

(Mathuraikanchi 624 - 627)

vendors who sell delicate adais that are like honeycombs with fine lines and mothakams (மோதகம்) that are made on the palms pressing fingers, with fillings with sugar syrup, go to sleep,

Panniyam (பண்ணியம்)

Mathuraikanchi also refers about the vendors selling Panniyam (பண்ணியம்), a sweet dish appearing like present day Paniyaram.

பல்வேறு பண்ணியந் தழீஇத்திரி விலைஞர் (Mathuraikanchi 405)

காமர் உருவின் தாம் வேண்டு பண்ணியம் (Mathuraikanchi 422)
சிறந்த தேஎத்து பண்ணியம் பகர்நரும் (Mathuraikanchi 506)  

பல் வேறு பண்ணியம் கடை மெழுக்குறுப்ப (Mathuraikanchi 661)

Appam and idiyappam (ஆப்பம் இடியப்பம்)

Appam is another sweet dish mentioned in Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. 

Appam and Idiyappam with side dish 

According food historian K.T. Achaya, in his book 'The Story of our Food,' both appam (ஆப்பம்) (a circular pancake with a thick spongy center and lacy brown edges) and idiyappam (இடியாப்பம்) (steam cooked fine rice noodles) were  already known in India around 1st century A.D. Both appam and idiyappam were the dishes sold by kaazhiyar and kuuviyar on the seashore. Sangam poems Perumpanatruppadai, Mathuraikanchi and Silappathikaram refer to the dishes.  K. T. Achaya considers that dosai (தோசை) was already in use in ancient Tamil country around the 1st century AD, as per references in the Sangam literature.

Idly

Idli (இட்லி)

Idli, a savory steam cake cooked using a batter consisting of fermented black lentils (de-husked) and rice,  is the favorite dish through out South India and Sri Lanka. K.T. Achaya's theory is that idli is relatively a recent introduction to India, and it might have actually come from Indonesia. He notes that the word might derive from ‘iddalige’, first mentioned in Jain literary works in Kannada language - Vaddaradhane of Sivakotiacharya (920 AD) and Soopa Shastra of Mangarasa (1508 AD)  But iddalige was made from urad dhal batter only, which was neither fermented, nor steamed to fluffiness.

Rice fry (பொரி) and Rice Flake (அவல்)

Rice Fllakes

Rice fry (பொரி) was in use during Sangam era. Sangam people cooked rice fry from boiled paddy. Ainkurunuru  (ஐங் குறுநூறு) refers about a food prepared by mixing rice fry with milk (Ainkurunuru 53). Sangam literature also speak about rice flake (அவல்). Rice flake was produced by pounding the soaked boiled paddy. தீங்கரும்போ டவல் விருந்தோர் (Perumpanarruppadai). Akananuru poem 141 informs about pounding of rice flakes from bamboo rice (மூங்கில் நெல்).

பெருஞ் செய் நெல்லின் வாங்குகதிர் முறித்துப் பாசவல் இடிக்கும் பெருங் காழ் உலக்கை

Dairy Products (பால்பொருட்கள்) 

Sangam Tamils have consumed more dairy products such as milk, curd, buttermilk, white butter, cheese etc.   

Salt was considered as a precious commodity during Sangam period.  Paddy and salt were equally priced 'நெல்லும் உப்பும் நேராகும்.' Salt was produced by 'Umanar' (உமணர்) community. Coconut was in use in Tamilakam since from 1st century A.D. Travelers note also mention about the coconut export to Rome.

Oven (அடுப்பு)

 Oven (அடுப்பு) was used Sangam era people to cook food. They have used firewood as fuel. Sangam literature do mention about oven (அடுப்பு)

ஆடுநனிமறந்த கோடுயர் அடுப்பு

Puranānūru 164, Poet Perunthalai Sāthanar sang to Kumanan, 

Mushroom has grown in our tall stove

பொருந்தாத் தெவ்வர் அரிந்தலை அடுப்பின்

Puranānūru 372: 5, Poet Mānkudi Kilar sang to Thalaiyālankanathu Cheruvendra Pandiyan Neduncheliyan 

Enemies precious heads are severed and they appear like oven

பொருந்தாத் தெவ்வர் – not-agreeable enemies, அருந்தலை அடுப்பின் – precious heads as stoves,

உமண்சாத்து இறந்த ஒழிகல் அடுப்பில்

Akanānūru 119, Kudavāyil Keerathanar, 

Warriors with strong bows cook meat on rock stoves abandoned by salt merchants

தீஇல் அடுப்பின் அரங்கம் போல

Akananuru 137: 11, Uraiyur Muthukoothanar,

your forehead has been ruined like the bare Kāviri islet (Arangam) without stoves and cooking fire

பல்கோட்டு அடுப்பில் பால்உலை இரீஇ (அக 141.15)

Akananuru 141, Nakkeerar,

A small-bangled bride with fragrant thakaram paste in her soft hair joins other women and boils milk on a stove with many sides.

உமண்உயிர்த்து இறந்த ஒழிகல் அடுப்பின்

Akananuru 159: 4, Poet Āmur Kavuthaman Sathevanar,

Salt merchants, who sell white, grainy salt, while resting in a camp lit the rock stove and abandoned while leaving from there

Attil (அட்டில்) 

Mounting vessels on an oven is known as cooking ('அடுதல் '). Kitchen in Tamil is known as Attil (அட்டில்). or அடுக்களை Ref: தமிழர் உணவு, தொ. பரமசிவன்

புனிற்றுநாய் குரைக்கும் புல்லெ னட்டில் 

Sirupanatruppadai 132 Nallur Nathathanar. sang on Oyman Nalliyakodan 

In our kitchen, a female dog who had just given birth was barking in sorrow,

Cooking Pot (குழிசி) 

Kuzhici means cooking pot or vessel.

இருங்கண் குழிசி கவிழ்ந்து இழுது மறப்பச்

Purananuru 65, Poet Kalathalaiyar

huge pots are placed upside down

மான் தடி புழுக்கிய புலவு நாறு குழிசி

Purananuru 168: 9, Poet Karuvur Kathapillai Sāthanar

They pour sweet elk milk with foam into an unwashed pot that smells of boiled deer

முரவு வாய் ஆடுறு குழிசி

Purananuru 371: 6, Poet: Kalladanar sang to Pandiyan Thalaiyalankanathu Cheruvendra Neduncheliyan

Carried the cooking pot with ruined mouth. 

Reference

1. Avvaiyars Kontrai Venthan nuggets in English. http://outshine-ga-ga.blogspot.in/2014/05/avvaiyars-kontrai-venthan-nuggets-in.html
2. Beef Eating in the Ancient Tamizhagam. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao (A paper presented during the 57th session of Indian History Congress held at Madras from December 27-29, 1996).  July 7, 2013. http://beef.sabhlokcity.com/2013/07/beef-eating-in-the-ancient-tamizhagam/
3. Beef Politics: How Beef Was Consumed in Ancient Tamil Nadu. Ramanathan S. October 7, 2015 https://www.thequint.com/india/2015/10/07/beef-politics-how-beef-was-consumed-in-ancient-tamil-nadu
4. Drinking habits in ancient India
5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4776591/
6. Sangam Literature Wikipedia
7. Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள் https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/sangam-tamil-books/
8. இலக்கியமும் உணவுக் குறிப்புகளும் http://www.keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18907&Itemid=139
9. உணவுப் பண்பாடு. அ.கா.பெருமாள். http://keetru.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12554&Itemid=139
10. உணவும் மதுவும் ப. சரவணன். http://www.tamilpaper.net/?p=8964
11. கார்த்திகை விழாவிற்கு வருவார்! பெரியண்ணன் சந்திரசேகரன். டிசம்பர் 2005. தென்றல் http://www.tamilonline.com/thendral/article.aspx?aid=913
12. சங்ககால சமையல் http://mazhimegam.blogspot.in/2014/01/1_30.html
13. சங்கச்சோலை  http://sangacholai.in/ and http://sangacholai.in/Essays-1.7.html
14. சங்கத்தமிழரின் உணவுமரபு http://paniveli.blogspot.in/2014/10/blog-post.html
15. தமிழ் மக்களின் உணவு புலால் http://www.vinavu.com/2015/06/25/flourishing-meating-culture-in-tamil-history/
16. பண்டைய தமிழர் உணவுகள் http://vairamani-lakshmi.blogspot.in/2011/08/blog-post_8263.html
17. பண்டைய கால தமிழர்களின் உணவு முறை!  http://suvanappiriyan.blogspot.in/2014/08/blog-post_7.html
18. திணை விளக்கம் Wikipedia
19. தொல்காப்பியம் காட்டும் உணவு  http://www.valaitamil.com/food-about-tolkappiyam_9017.html

Food in Sangam Literature 2: Introduction to Ethnic Culture

 "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius." - A.K.Ramanujan on Sangam Literature.

Three small clay tablets, inscribed with complex 'cuneiform' script, comprise thirty-five Akkadian recipes with cooking instructions. The cuneiform tablets were inscribed during First Babylonian dynasty. These records stand as the most ancient cook-book in the world goes back as far as the second millennium B.C. These recipes were decoded and translated. Since it is difficult to decode the language of the Indus Valley Civilization, scholars find it difficult to name the dishes from this civilization. The main ingredients of their dishes were wheat and barley. With this nine more crops have been identified.

Babylonian Stew Recipes in Cuneiform Tablets

Sangam Tamil literature and Sangam Tamil civilization unveil the sophisticated ancient Tamil culture. Sangam literature is a record of the history of ancient Tamilakam of about 600 years (300 B.C. to 300 A.D.). The Sangam Tamil poets have left these breathtaking poems for all of us to relish. The poems have abundant references about rich Sangam Tamil cuisine. Pathuppattu poems detail about the generosity of kings and chieftains and provide explicit descriptions of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food that they gave to the bards. Eight anthologies (Ettuthokai) poems provide pictorial details of the Sangam Tamil society. Purananuru and Patitrupattu poems detail the foods and drinks of ancient Tamil society. Akam poems or love poems (Akananuru, Narrinai, Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, and Kalittokai) also bring out graphic description of food and drinks. Sangam Tamil Cuisine has the unique style of preparing food. The cooking style is characterized by identifiable ingredients, cooking processes and proficiency. It is unique and associated with Sangam civilization.

Sangam Era culture have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions. The six tastes of Tamils are 1. Sweet 2. pungent (mirchi) 3.bitter 4. Salt. 5. sour. and 6. astringent. Over the years Sangam Era gastronomy has greatly evolved and they have used characteristic spices and the combination of flavors unique to Sangam period.  The Sangam Era culinary had unique flavors, the tangy twist and the plethora of vegetables were used in their recipes. The gastronomy of Sangam Tamil cuisine was dominated by rice, lentils, tamarind, coconut and curry leaves.  Rice was the major staple food of most of the Sangam Tamil people. Cooked rice was known in different names in Sangam literature. Choodamani Nigandu (சூடாமணி நிகண்டு), Tamil thesaurus lists out related terms: Atisil (அடிசில்),  Amalai (அமலை), Amizhthu (அமிழ்து), Annam (அன்னம்), Arru (அற்று), Asanam (அசனம்), Ayini (அயினி),  Avi (அவி), Avizh (அவிழ்),   Azhini (அழினி),  Othanam (ஓதனம்),  Un (ஊன்),  Una (உணா), Undi (உண்டி), Kondri (கொன்றி), Kuzh (கூழ்), Madai (மடை), Mural (மூரல்),   Misai (மிசை), Mithavai (மிதவை),  Nimiral (நிமிரல்), Palitham (பாளிதம்), Parukkai (பருக்கை), Patham (பதம்), Pathu (பாத்து), Pomman (பொம்மன்), Ponagam (போனகம்),   Puka (புகா), Punkam (புன்கம்), Puzhukkal (புழுக்கல்),   Saru (சரு),  Sondri (சொன்றி),   Soru (சோறு),  Thori (தோரி), Thurru (துற்று) and Valsi (வல்சி). They were by no means vegetarians. Therefore the food had a wide range of vegetarian and non-vegetarian delicacies.

Saint. Tiruvalluvar, 

Tamil philosophy is "let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food."  Tirukkural, composed by Tiruvalluvar, the most celebrated Tamil poet-saint, is considered as unparallel, universal scripture.  It comprises of 1330 aphorisms in couplets organized in 133 chapters under three heads -- Virtue, Wealth and Love. Tiruvalluvar’s couplets on Medicine ( 95th chapter) are highly aphoristic: "no medicine is necessary for him who eats after assuring (himself) that what he has (already) eaten has been digested." 

மருந்தென வேண்டாவாம் யாக்கைக்கு அருந்தியது

அற்றது போற்றி உணின்

(Tirukkural  (திருக்குறள்) 942: Poet Tiruvalluvar)

No need of medicine to heal your body's pain,

If, what you ate before digested well, you eat again.

Thamilakam 

"The word Thamilakam was used to refer to the entire Tamil speaking region which corresponded to the territory of South Indian royalties of Sangam period (3rd century B.C. - 3rd century A.D.) as well as the modern south India comprising territories of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as parts of Sri Lanka. Historians referred to the 'whole of the Ancient Tamil country' as the single cultural area, though many Tamil kingdoms existed here within its boundaries." 

'Tamiḻakam' aka. 'Tamizhakam'   (Tamil தமிழகம்), a Tamil word was first coined in Purananuru, poem 168.18, a Sangam Tamil poetic work.

வையக வரைப்பில் தமிழகம் கேட்ப (Purananuru 168:18)

வடவேங்கடந் தென்குமரி ஆயிடைத்

தமிழ் கூறு நல்லுலகம் (Tolkappiyam) 

The other classical references include:

'இமிழ் கடல் வேலித் தமிழகம் விளங்க (பதிற்றுப்பத்து, இரண்டாம் பத்து, பதிகம் : Pathirruppaththu, Second Tens, Hymn 5

'இமிழ் கடல் வரைப்பில் தமிழகம் அறிய (சிலப்பதிகாரம், அரங்கேற்றுகாதை  Silapathikaram, Arangerru Kathai 38 

' சம்புத் தீவினுள் தமிழக மருங்கில்  (Manimekalai, 17:62) 

Dating of Sangam Period

As per Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamilakam. Several historians and scholars consider the First two "Sangam Age" since the mythical or traditional dating are not in accordance with the Historical dating.  The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars. Scholars find many proof that the bulk of the literature was written from 150 B.C. to 300 A.D. However literature was compiled only during the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. Sangam literature do not include even a single reference about Pallavas who established their realm around 300 A.D. 

Sangam poems provides vivid account of foreign trade i.e., particularly with Greece, and we understand about their maritime trade, port cities of Tamilakam, arrival of huge ships and Roman gold coins. The maritime trade prevailed till 3rd century A.D. The Greek and Roman writers such as Periplus (70 A.D.), Pliny (78 A.D.), and Ptolemy (140 A.D.) have recorded pictorial description about the seashore of Tamilakam, port towns, inland towns and capital cities. 

Historians constantly apply Gajabahu synchronism, the chronological device, to establish the date in Tamil history. Silappatikaram, the Tamil epic, mentioned about Gajabahu (கயவாகு), the Sinhalese king of Lanka who reigned from 173 to 195 A.D., and therefore he is considered as the contemporary of the Chera king Senguttuvan. Gajabahu is said to have attended the coronation of the Chera king Senguttuvan.

அரும் சிறை நீங்கிய ஆரிய மன்னரும்,

பெரும் சிறைக்கோட்டம் பிரிந்த மன்னரும்,

குடகக் கொங்கரும், மாளுவ வேந்தரும்,

கடல் சூழ் இலங்கைக் கயவாகு வேந்தனும்,

‘எம் நாட்டு ஆங்கண் இமையவரம்பனின்

நல்நாள் செய்த நாள் அணி வேள்வியில்

வந்து ஈக’ என்றே வணங்கினர் வேண்ட 

(Silappatikaram, Varantaru Kathai 157-163)

Iravatham Mahadevan was able to read clearly the names of three generations of Chera rulers mentioned in the Sangam work Patirrupattau in the inscriptions found in Pugalur and ascertained the date as 200 A.D. The period of the Sangam Age can be fixed roughly between the third century B.C. and the third century A.D.

Structure of Sangam Poems 

The poems belonging to the Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets (including 30 poetesses and 102 poems by anonymous authors) and constitutes a total of 2381 poems (26,350 lines of poems). Both men and women from various professions and classes of society including kings, noble men, learned men, doctors, businessmen, teachers, metal smiths,  goldsmiths, cattle  herders etc have become poets. The poems were gathered at a later date into various anthologies, edited and the anthologists and annotators assigned colophons. Tolkappiyam composed by Tolkappiyar is considered as the earliest Tamil grammar work. The text also provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam era. The corpus of Sangam literature comprise the 'Major Eighteen Anthology Series' (Pathinenmelkanakku - பதினென்மேல்க்கணக்கு) which includes The Eight Anthologies (Ettuthokai - எட்டுத்தொகை) and the Ten Idylls (Pattupattu  - பத்துப்பாட்டு) and the 'Minor Eighteen Anthology Series' (Pathinenkilkanakku - பதினென்கீழ்க்கணக்கு). The Eight Anthologies consist of eight books – Ainkurunuru (ஐங்குறுநூறு) - 500 poems, Natrinai (நற்றிணை) - 400 poems, Akanaooru (அகநானுறு) - 400 poems, Purananooru (புறநானுறு) - 400 poems, Kuruntokai (குறுந்தொகை) - 400 poems, Kalittogai (கலித்தொகை) - 150 poems, Paripadal (பரிபாடல்) - 22 poems and Patirruppattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து) - 80 poems.

The Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Tirumurugatruppadai (திருமுருகாற்றுப்படை) poet Nakirar includes 317 lines, Porunaratruppadai (பொருநராற்றுப்படை) poet Mudathamakkaniyar includes 250 lines, Sirupanatruppadai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை) poet Nathathanar includes 269 lines, Perumpanatruppadai (பெரும்பாணாற்றுப்படை) poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar includes 500 lines, Mullaippattu (முல்லைப்பாட்டு) poet Napputanar includes 103 lines, Nedunalvadai (நெடுநல்வாடை) poet Nakirar (son of Madurai Kanakkayanar) includes 188 lines, Mathuraikkanji (மதுரைக்காஞ்சி) poet Mangudi Marutanar includes 583 lines, Kurinjippatttu (குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு) poet Kapilar includes 261 lines, Pattinappalai (பட்டினப்பாலை) poet Kadiyalur Urithirankannanar includes 301 lines and Malaipadukatam (மலைபடுகடாம்) poet Perunkousikanar includes 583 lines. The corpus of Sangam literature slipped out of popular memory soon thereafter. It was the scholars, S. V. Damodaram Pillai and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, who rediscovered them in the 19th century.

Akam and Puram Poems

Sangam poems are categorized in Tolkappiyam by their themes into two categories:

Akam Poems ("inner field" themes):  Poems include highly structured love poems and they relate to human or personal aspects like love and relationships which are expressed in allegorical and abstract manner.  About 78% of the poems are in the Akam Tinai (அகத்திணை).

Puram ("outer field" themes):  Poems include heroic poems on war, death, personal virtues, the ferocity and glory of kings, and the poverty of poets and the purview or the range of interest include heroism, courage, ethics, benevolence, philanthropy, social life, and customs. Poems under this category is known as Puram Tinai (புறத்திணை)

The division into akam and puram is not rigid. 

Tinai or Poetical Mode or Theme

Sangam literature employs a kind of poetical mode or theme called Tinai (திணை). Akam and Puram poems have different poetical mode or theme called Tinai (திணை).

Akam Tinai  (அகத்திணை) is a taxonomy of culturally defined time, space, nature and human nature. A tinai (திணை) comprise the absolute poetical landscape (முதற்பொருள்); a precise or explicit time (பொழுது), topographic place (நிலம்), season in which the poem is set; and also includes background elements distinctive of that landscape i.e.,  flora and fauna, inhabitants, occupation, deities, musical note, musical instrument, and social organization.

Five Landscapes

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The landscapes are named after flowers and trees and associated with a certain kind of land. They include Kurinji (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), forests; marutam (மருதம்), agricultural land; neital (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; palai (பாலை) deserts or wasteland. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, two more tinais are employed i.e., unsolicited love (கைக்கிளை)  and unsuited love (பெருந்திணை). The Sangam poets have employed Akam tinais to achieve the desired poetic effect, and it is essential to understand them, to appreciate Sangam poetry. The poet also employs metaphors and similes in his poem to match the elements in the particular landscape.

Five Subjects in Akam Poems

Akam poems have five subjects such as 1. Lovers union is the main theme of Kurinji tinai.  It is pre-marital (புணர்தலும் புணர்தல் நிமித்தமும்); 2. Anxious waiting is the theme of Neital tinai.  It could be pre-marital or post-marital (இரங்கலும் இரங்கல் நிமித்தமும் (வருந்துதல்); 3. Separation is the theme of Palai.  It could be pre-marital or post-marital (பிரிதலும் பிரிதல் நிமித்தமும்); 4. Patient waiting is the theme of Mullai.  It could be pre-marital or post-marital (இருத்தலும் இருத்தல் நிமித்தமும்) (காத்து இருத்தல்); 5. Infidelity is the theme of Marutham.  It is post-marital (ஊடலும் ஊடல் நிமித்தமும்).

Six Seasons (பெரும்பொழுது) and Six parts of the day

Six seasons - two months each - (பெரும்பொழுது) 1. Spring (இளவேனில்) Mid Apr - Mid Jun;  2. Summer (முதுவேனில்) Mid Jun - Mid Aug, 3. Monsoon (கார்) Mid Aug - Mid Oct, 4. Autumn (குளிர்) Mid Oct - Mid Dec, 5. Winter (முன்பனி) Mid Dec - Mid Feb and 6. Prevernal (பின்பனி) Mid Feb - Mid Apr;
Six parts of the day - four hours each - (சிறுபொழுது) 1. dawn (வைகறை), 2. forenoon (காலை), 3. noon (நண்பகல்), 4. afternoon (ஏற்பாடு), 5. evening (மாலை), and 6. night (யாமம்).

Puram Tinais

Puram poems employ seven tinais or themes based on activity and have been named after flowers: i.e., Vetchi (வெட்சி), Vanji (வஞ்சி), Ulignai (உழிஞை), Thumpai (தும்பை), Vakai (வாகை), Kanji (காஞ்சி) and Padan (பாடாண்). The Tamil kings and chieftains wore different flowers in the battlefield to denote different heroic activities. While invading an enemy's territory the soldiers wore Vanchi (வஞ்சி) flowers and enter into the territory for cattle raids. While raiding the cattle they wore Vetchi (வெட்சி) and wore Ulignai (உழிஞை) flower when the cattle is under siege. They wore Thumpai (தும்பை) flower while engaged in a battle. The victorious soldiers wore Thumpai (தும்பை). Kanji (காஞ்சி) flower indicates tragedy. Padan (பாடாண்) is used to praise the chieftain. The Puram tinai poems are spoken by the poet himself, and frequently associated with real persons, places and events in history.

Hospitality in Sangam Poems

Cuisine is also influenced by regional food laws i.e., moral codes, social codes and religious codes.  Sangam Tamil culture valued that feeding everyone,  with a smile to those who comes home, as the most important domestic duty of every householder.   

PC: முத்துக்கமலம்

Sangam literature is a record of Tamil Nadu history of about 500 – 600 years. According to A.K. Ramanujan, “These poem are ‘classical,’ i.e., early, ancient; they are also ‘classics,’ i.e., works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition.  Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization” In Tamil "Virunthu" (விருந்து) means guests. It also means "feast." Tamils are one of the most hospitable people for anybody in the world. Welcoming guests and strangers is part of Tamil culture. It is apt to quote Tolkappiyam and few Sangam poems here:

“விருந்தே தானும்

புதுவது புனைந்த யாப்பின் மேற்றே” (Tolkappiyam.Poem.231)

Sangam Poems

யாதும் ஊரே ; யாவரும் கேளிர் ;

தீதும் நன்றும் பிறர்தர வாரா ;

(Purananuru 192; Poet Kaniyan Poonkundranar)

(Any village, we can live in. Everyone is our kin. Evil and goodness will never come from others.)

Kadalul Mayntha Ilamveruvaluthi, the Pandyan king  died in the ocean.  There was maritime trade during his reign.  The Tamil kings owned ships and traded with many countries.  This was the only poem that this king wrote. Nectar of Indiran is known for longevity and even if noble get the nectar of Indiran, they will not drink it alone. They will give up their lives for renown yet will not consent if it comes with dishonor.

உண்டால் அம்ம இவ்வுலகம் இந்திரர்

அமிழ்தம் இயைவதாயினும் இனிது எனத்

தமியர் உண்டலும் இலரே முனிவிலர்

துஞ்சலும் இலர் பிறர் அஞ்சுவது அஞ்சிப்

புகழ் எனின் உயிரும் கொடுக்குவர் பழியெனின்

உலகுடன் பெறினும் கொள்ளலர் அயர்விலர்

அன்ன மாட்சி அனையராகித்

தமக்கென முயலா நோன் தாள்

பிறர்க்கென முயலுநர் உண்மையானே.

(Purananuru 182,  Kadalul Mayntha Ilamveruvaluthi)

This world exists because of men who, even if they were to get the nectar of Indiran, will not drink it alone knowing that it is sweet, men with no hatred, without laziness, afraid of what others fear, will give up their lives for fame, but will not accept fame if it comes with dishonor, even if they were to gain the world, men who have no regrets, and with noble virtues, who exert their power, not for themselves but for others!

வல்லார் ஆயினும் வல்லுநர் ஆயினும்

வருந்தி வந்தோர் மருங்கு நோக்கி

அருள வல்லை ஆகுமதி ....

Purananuru 27, Poet Uraiyur Muthukannan Sathanar sang to Cholan Nalankilli

Even if they have talents or not, please shower your graces rapidly on those who come with sorrow,

Poet Mosi Keeranar establishes the place of the king in Tamil Sangam society. He is the lifeline than the rice and water. 

நெல்லும் உயிர் அன்றே நீரும் உயிர் அன்றே

மன்னன் உயிர்த்தே மலர்தலை உலகம்

Puranauru 186; Poet Mosi Keeranar,

Rice is not life!  Water is not life!

The king is life for this wide world!

அறநெறி முதற்றே அரசின் கொற்றம்

Purananuru 55, Poet Mathurai Maruthan Ilanakanar sang to Pandiyan Ilavanthikaippalli Thunjiya Nanmaran,

Esteemed righteousness is the foremost cause for real victory.

“விருந்தின் மன்னர் அருங்கலம் தெறுப்ப,
வேந்தனும் வெம்பகை தணிந்தனன்”
Akananuru 54, Matroor Kilar Makanar Kotrankotranar,
The new kings have given tributes and our king’s great rage has ebbed.

“நெல் பல பொலிக! பொன் பெரிது சிறக்க!”

Ainkurunūru 1, Poet Orampokiyar, 

May paddy fields yield rich harvest! May the country flourish!

“விளைக வயலே! வருக இரவலர்!” 

Ainkurunūru 2, Poet Orampokiyar, 

May fields yield harvest! May solicitors come for alms!

“பால்பல ஊறுக! பகடுபல சிறக்க!” 

Ainkurunūru 3, Poet Orampokiyar, 

May milk flow abundantly! May bulls thrive!

“பசி இல் ஆகுக! பிணிசேண் நீங்குக!” 

Ainkurunūru 5, Poet Orampokiyar, 

May there be no hunger! May diseases go far away!

“அல்லி லாயினும் விருந்துவரின் உவக்கும்

முல்லை சான்ற கற்பின்

மெல்லியல் குறுமகள்” 

Natrinai 142: 9-11, Idaikkadanar, 

Even if it is night time, she’ll welcome guests happily, the delicate young lady with virtue suited to wear mullai blossoms.

Tiruvalluvar considers that the "chief of all (the virtues) which authors have summed up, is the partaking of food that has been shared with others, and the preservation of the mainfold life of other creatures."

பகுத்துண்டு பல்லுயிர் ஓம்புதல் நூலோர் 

தொகுத்தவற்றுள் எல்லாந் தலை.

(Tirukkural 322; Poet Tiruvalluvar)

Let those that need partake your meal; guard every-thing that lives; 

This the chief and sum of lore that hoarded wisdom gives.

According to the poet "the whole design of living in the domestic state and laying up (property) is (to be able) to exercise the benevolence of hospitality." He believes that "the advantages of benevolence cannot be measured; the measure (of the virtue) of the guests (entertained) is the only measure." He is also sure that goddess Lakshmi with joyous mind shall dwell in the house of that man who, with cheerful countenance, entertains the good as guests"

Spurning Meat (புலால் மறுத்தல்)

Non vegetarianism was the main food habit of Sangam Tamils. Rice was consumed as the staple food in Sangam literature. Sangam literature provide abundant information about eating of the meats of Eel (விலங்கு மீன் இறைச்சி ), Murrel fish (Channa striata) (வரால் மீன் இறைச்சி), Mackerel fish (அயிலை மீன் இறைச்சி), Sword fish (வாளை மீன் இறைச்சி), Shark (சுறா இறைச்சி), Tortoise (ஆமைக்கறி), Crab (நண்டுக் கறி), Fowl (காட்டுக்கோழி), Quail (காடை கறி), Partridge (கவுதாரி கறி), rams (செம்மறி ஆடு இறைச்சி), Veal (பசுங்கன்று இறைச்சி), Ox (எருது இறைச்சி), Bison (கடமான் இறைச்சி), porcupine (முள்ளம்பன்றி இறைச்சி), pork (பன்றியிறைச்சி), iguana (உடும்பு இறைச்சி),  rabbit (முயல் இறைச்சி), venison (மான் இறைச்சி) etc. They cooked the flesh with ghee and spices. Sangam people inhabited in five varied landscapes and their food habits were shaped by their surrounding environment. Ayars and Idayars enjoyed their dairy products. Uzhavars (farmers) ate roasted flesh rams, fowl, fish, crabs etc., Fishermen consumed fish and drank pottage rice and toddy. Hunters ate venison, iguana and pigs. Brahmin ascetics preferred non vegetarian diets and avoided alcoholic drinks. However Sangam Tamils did not make any differentiation between vegetarian and non-vegetarian food in those days. Sangam literature has employed several words to refer meat varieties: Un (meat), Thu, Thasai (flesh), Thadi (steak), Kurai (large meat / fish slice), Ninam (fat), Pulal (dried meat with smell / dried salt-fish), Vidakkudai, and Muri (bone removed from flesh).

There was no religious restriction and religion never played any role in the food habits of Sangam Tamils. In fact beef eating was prevalent during Sangam period. Their philosophy was that ‘man has every right to eat anything.’ Sangam Tamils were faithful to the concept of the “survival of the fittest” in accordance to the principles of natural selection and evolution.

The civilization of ancient India and ancient Greece are the source for vegetarianism. Vegetarianism is the theory and practice of not eating meat or fish, especially for moral, religious, or health reasons. Vegetarian is a person who does not eat meat or fish, and sometimes other animal products, especially for moral, religious, or health reasons. Vegetarian diet focuses on cereals, pulses, spices, vegetables, and fruits. Many vegetarians give up meat since they have compassion for animals. Nonviolence (ahimsa) towards animals influenced the food habits in ancient India. However Vedic religion in ancient India allowed eating some kinds of meats. Also the religion promoted vegetarianism. According to Manusmriti (a code book for Vedic religion) expresses that, ‘there is no sin in eating meat... but abstention brings great rewards.’

Jain and Buddhist religions exhibited the principle of nonviolence toward animals and prohibited eating meat as early as the 6th century BC. It is learned that Bhadrabahu (433 – 357 century B.C.), the Jain monk proceeded to Shravanabelagula (Karnataka, India) along with Chandra Gupta Maurya (reign: 321–298 B.C.). Later they further travelled towards south to Tamil Nadu to spread Jainism. Preaching of Jainism concentrated around Madurai. Evidences of Jainism in Tamil Nadu can be seen as early as 1st century BC. Sittanavasal Cave near Pudukottai Jainism and Buddism was once followed widely in Tamilnadu. Kancheepuram, Thirunelveli, Ramnathapuram and Madurai were important places where a majority of Jains and Buddist lived.

Emperor Ashoka (268 – 232 B.C) and his son Mahinda were responsible for spreading Buddhism in Tamil Nadu during (400 – 650 A.D). Archaeologists have discovered  ancient ruins of a 4th-5th century Buddhist monastery, a Buddha statue, and a Buddhapada (footprint of the Buddha) at Pallavenswaram, near Poompukar. Nagapattinam, a Chola port town finds a place in Buddhist Historical text in Burmese language (3rd Century B.C). The town was also a Buddhist centre till 5th century A.D.

Both Jainism and Buddhism followed the path of ahimsa and brought strong influence on nonviolence towards animals as well as vegetarianism. The habit of meat eating was discouraged and therefore non-vegetarianism was sidelined. Vegetarian food was known as ‘Arugatha food (ஆருகத உணவு).’Arugatham was another name of Jainism. Also there were categorization vegetarianism and non-vegetarianism in the food habits of ancient Tamils. Vegetarianism slowly formed part of religious practice.

The Saivite religion had its origin only around 7th century A.D. Practises animal sacrifice were prevalent in Saivite religion. Over  period of time the religious sect evolved as the religion emphasizing vegetarianism. Bakti Movement brought this transformation.  Thevaram Trio and Nayanmars onset attacks on Jainism and Buddhism and propagated religious conversion of Jains and Buddhists to Hinduism. At last vegetarianism was accepted as Saivite religious practice.

Poet Saint Tiruvalluvar was a great advocate of Vegetarianism. He abhors the idea of killing animals for consumption of meat. It is the duty of the householders as well as ascetics to practice vegetarianism. He has composed 10 couplets on ‘Spurning of Meat.’

Tirukural 251 well explains that, one cannot be gracious and humane if he feeds his flesh with another being's flesh.

தன்ஊன் பெருக்கற்குத் தான்பிறிது ஊன்உண்பான்

எங்ஙனம் ஆளும் அருள். (Tirukural 251)

What graciousness can one command

Who feeds his flesh by flesh gourmand

Tirukural 260 advocates vegetarianism on behalf of all living beings. He says that “all that lives will press palms together in prayerful adoration of those who refuse to slaughter and savor meat.”

கொல்லான் புலாலை மறுத்தானைக் கைகூப்பி

எல்லா உயிரும் தொழும்.

All lives shall lift their palms to him

who eats not flesh nor kills with whim.

Alcoholism

The distillation of intoxicants was known to ancient India as early as Rig Vedic period. The drink contained substantial amount of ethanol (informally called alcohol). There were two kinds of drinks i.e., Somapana and Surapana which were used by the Indo-Aryan settlers. Ramayana and Mahabharata also mention the habit of drinking. During the reign of Chandra Gupta Maurya, liquor saloons existed under the control of state. Kautilya in his Arthashastra recorded the 'Abkari' policy of the state. Alcohol is a a depressant which in low doses causes euphoria, reduced anxiety, and sociability and in higher doses causes intoxication (drunkenness), stupor and unconsciousness.

Sangam Tamils including kings, warriors, poets, bards and others drank intoxicants (alcohol) to socialize, celebrate and relax. Alcoholic drinks were in abundant supply and were consumed by all classes of people. Consumption of intoxicants (alcohol) played an important social role in Sangam Tamil cultures. Undattu (உண்டாட்டு) is one of the themes of Puram Tinais (புறத்திணைகள்) and it forms part of Vetchi tinai (வெட்சித் தினை). There are five songs in Purananuru.

Palmyra Toddy Tapping

The alcoholic drinks were known as toddy (கள்) or palm wine. Toddy was brewed from the sap of the palmyra (Borassus flabellifer) and coconut palms (cocos nucifera). இவற்குஈந்து உண்மதி, கள்ளே (Puranauru 290 Poet Avvaiyar). Different kinds of alcoholic drinks such as ariyal (அரியல்), kantharam (கந்தாரம்), madhu (மது), mattu (மட்டு),   naravu (நறவு), pizhi (பிழி), theral (தேறல்), topi (டொப்பி) and veri (வேரி)  were used during Sangam period. Topi was obtained by fermenting rice and other cereals in “strong mouthed jars” for two days after which they yielded a highly-flavoured wine. Some varieties were obtained from fruits like jack fruit. Wine was also brewed from honey in the mountainous terrains and was matured underground in tightly-lidded jars.

தேறல் உண்ணும் மன்னே.(Purananuru 298)

The king gives unfiltered toddy

தேள் கடுப்பு அன்ன நாள் படு தேறல்

. (Purananuru 392, Poet Avvaiyar sang for Athiyaman Neduman Anji’s son Poruttu Elini)

Aged toddy as strong as the sting of a scorpion

நிலம் புதைப் பழுனிய மட்டின் தேறல்

புல் வேய்க் குரம்பைக் குடிதொறும் பகர்ந்து

(Purananuru 120, Poet Kapilar)

 in every settlement, in the huts roofed with grass, they share the clarified toddy that has been buried and matured in liquor jars,

குறி இறைக் குரம்பைக் குறவர் மாக்கள்

வாங்கு அமைப் பழுனிய தேறல் மகிழ்ந்து

வேங்கை முன்றில் குரவை அயரும்

(Purananuru 129, Poet Uraiyur Enicheri Mudamosiyar sang for Ay Andiran)

Mountain dwellers living in huts with narrow eaves drink aged liquor and perform kuravai dances in the front yards of their houses near vengai trees.

யவனர் நன்கலம் தந்த தண்கமழ் தேறல். (Purananuru 56 Poet Mathurai Kanakkayanar Makanar Nakkeeranar sang to Pandiyan Ilavanthikaippalli Thunjiya Nanmaran)

 fragrant and cool wine brought in fine ships by the Greeks

Large Toddy (பெரிய கள்) and Small Toddy (சிறிய கள்) indicated measuring units of alcohol.

சிறியகட் பெறினே, எமக்கீயும்; மன்னே!

பெரிய கட் பெறினே,

யாம் பாடத், தான்மகிழ்ங்து உண்ணும்.

(Purananuru 235, Poet Avvaiyar sang about Athiyaman Neduman Anji)

If he had a little toddy, he would give it to us. Not any longer.  If he had abundant toddy, he would give it to us and happily drink the leftover

The most prominent protagonist of abstinence and powerfully expressed is Tiruvalluvar in his Thirukural (திருக்குறள்) in the chapter 92 on Not Drinking Palm Wine (கள்ளுண்ணாமை).

Tiruvalluvar advocates not to drink. "Let no liquor be drunk; if it is desired, let it be drunk by those who care not for esteem of the great."

உண்ணற்க கள்ளை உணில்உண்க சான்றோரான்

எண்ணப் படவேண்டா தார். (Tirukural 922)

Drink not inebriating drought. Let him count well the cost. Who drinks, by drinking, all good men's esteem is lost.

Tiruvalluvar pities those who pay and drink and lose consciousness and ranks them as the most ignorant.

கையறி யாமை உடைத்தே பொருள்கொடுத்து

மெய்யறி யாமை கொளல்.(Tirukural 925)

With gift of goods who self-oblivion buys, Is ignorant of all that man should prize.

Tiruvalluvar considers that those who sleeps resembles the dead; (likewise) those who drink are no other than poison-eaters.

துஞ்சினார் செத்தாரின் வேறல்லர் எஞ்ஞான்றும்

நஞ்சுண்பார் கள்ளுண் பவர்.(Tirukural 926)

Sleepers are as the dead, no otherwise they seem; Who drink intoxicating droughts, they poison quaff, we deem.

Reference

1. Absolute Astronomy Sangam http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Sangam
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   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4776591/
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6. Gajabahu synchronism Wikipedia
7. History of vegetarianism Wikipedia
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11. Sangam Literature – சான்றோர் செய்யுள் https://sangamtamilliterature.wordpress.com/sangam-tamil-books/
12. Sangam Period in South Indian History: Part I Tamilakam, Sangam Period and Sangam Literature. Muthusamy R. Know Your Heritage. http://know-your-heritage.blogspot.in/2013/12/sangam-period-in-south-indian-history_8.html
13. Sources of ancient Tamil History Wikipedia  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_of_ancient_Tamil_history
14. Tamil Cuisine Wikipedia
15. Thirukkural Abstinence from Meat. http://tamilvegan.blogspot.in/p/tamil-veganism-blogen-gbtranslations.html
16. What is sangam age? https://www.quora.com/What-is-sangam-age
17. What is Toddy Drink? http://www.mostinside.com/advantages-disadvantages-of-toddy-drink/
18. உணவும் மதுவும் ப. சரவணன். http://www.tamilpaper.net/?p=8964
19. தமிழர் பண்பாட்டில் விருந்தோம்பல். மா. பத்மபிரியா. முத்துக்கமலம்
20. திணை விளக்கம் Wikipedia

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Food in Sangam Literature 1: Evolution of Man and His Early Civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley

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Food is indispensable for human survival. Much attention is being paid to what people ate during the evolutionary stages and it serves as a guideline to what we should eat today. Food experts say modern humans should eat from a Stone Age menu. After examining the diets of ancient hunter-gatherers, the food experts concluded that 73 percent of these primitive societies derived more than half of their calories from meat, 

Since 'food history' focuses cultural, economic, environmental and sociological impacts of food, the field is interdisciplinary in its scope. On the other hand 'culinary history' is a traditional field and it is distinct from 'food history.' Culinary history focuses on the origin and recreation of ancient cuisine.  Food historians view food as an essential elements of culture, reflecting the social and economic structure of the society.

Human evolution is the evolutionary process of change by which anatomically modern humans originated from ape-like ancestors. Before Homo sapiens evolved, our hominin (an early form of human or any taxonomic tribe) ancestors foraged for millions of years. Hominins relied on food available from nature and gathered plants, small animals, birds, and insects. They were scavenging animals killed by other predators and also resorted to primitive hunting.  Control of fire is considered as the significant step made by hominins.  Cooked food brought amazing transformation: it provided more nutrition, reduced chewing time, and constricted him with smaller intestines and, as a result, cooked food contributed to brain development. Cooking and primitive agriculture provided social living. Evolved human improved taste in their cooking. Specific practice or manner of cooking food brought the 'art of cooking' or 'culinary art.' Sangam Tamil Cuisine is one such culinary art. "Gastronomy governs the whole life of man."

This five part series aims to explicate the Food in Sangam literature. 

Food in Sangam literature 1: Evolution of Man and His Early Civilizations, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley.

Food in Sangam literature 2: Introduction to Ethnic Culture.   

Food in Sangam literature 3: Rice and Millets in Sangam Tamil Cuisine.
Food in Sangam literature 4: Meat in Sangam Tamil Cuisine.
Food in Sangam literature 5: Food Habits in Five Sangam Landscapes.

Early Human: The Evolution of Foraging

Foraging means acquisition of food by scavenging fruits, vegetables, small animals, birds, insects (killed by other predators) or hunting as well as fishing. The word foraging can be used interchangeably with “hunting and gathering.” Humans are not the only creatures who forage; many animals do too. Behavioral ecology deals with the theory of foraging and it concentrates the foraging behavior of human as well as animals in response to the environment in which the human or animal lives. Solitary foraging takes place when early human or animals forage by themselves. Group foraging, on the other hand, happens when early human or animals keep foraging together and it is highly beneficial for the group members. Early humans were adequately skilled to accumulate knowledge and communicate the same verbally or non-verbally either to the fellow humans or to younger generations and functioned together cooperatively.

Australopithecus is an extinct genus of the hominid family that lived in Africa from about three to two million years ago. Australopithecus means “southern ape.” It was one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species and ancestor of humans. It was originally a herbivore. Between 2.5 and 2 million B.C., ancient human was forced by drought and commenced eating some meat to supplement their diet. They foraged by scavenging small crawling animals and insects. Scavenging was the only means of foraging and not necessarily by hunting initially.  

Homo habilis (meaning 'handy man') is considered as the earliest 'great ape' type creature. Homo-habilis is generally accepted as the earliest member of the genus Homo and it is now extinct. The species is following Australopithecus and preceding Homo-erectus. The earliest Homo species inhabited parts of sub-Saharan Africa about 2 million to 1.5 million years ago. It is believed that this was the earliest human species to make tools for specific purposes i.e., to cut meat etc., 

By 1.9 million years ago, Homo erectus (meaning 'upright man'), formerly known as Pithecanthropus erectus, had evolved into a new, fully grown human species in African tropics. The species was "having upright stature and a well-evolved post-cranial skeleton, but with a smallish brain, low forehead, and protruding face." By about 500,000 years ago, he began to gradually migrate into Asia and parts of Europe. He was probably also the first to use fire. We think that Homo erectus built campfires and may have made simple ovens with hot stones.

Neanderthal, also spelled Neandertal, is a member of an extinct subspecies of powerful, physically robust humans, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, who emerged between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago and inhabited Europe and western and central Asia. Neanderthals were also hunter-gatherers, whose diet consisted mainly of meat. Meat is the primary source of energy in the hunter-gatherer diet. Neanderthals were known for their second largest brains. They moved from Africa into Europe sometime around 46,000 years ago. Neanderthals in Europe endured many environmental changes, including large shifts in climate between glacial and inter-glacial conditions. However their brains were about 300 cc smaller. This reduction in brain volume must have taken place after the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural diet. 

Homo sapiens (Latin "wise man') belongs to the species of bipedal primates to which modern human belong. Homo is the human genus, that also includes Neanderthals and various extinct species of Hominin. Homo sapiens is the lone surviving species of the genus Homo. Modern humans belongs to the sub species of Homo sapiens. H. sapiens are characterized by bipedal stance and gait, brain capacity averaging about 1400 cc (82 cubic inches), high forehead, small teeth and jaw and defined chin, They depended upon verbal and non-verbal communication and devised and utilized complex tools.  Homo sapiens first appear in the fossil record about 200,000 years ago.  

Until agriculture was developed around 10,000 years ago, all humans got their food by hunting, gathering, and fishing. As farming emerged, nomadic hunter-gatherers were gradually  pushed off towards prime farmland

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The discovery of fire, or, more precisely, the controlled use of fire was one of the earliest of human discoveries. The purposes of fire are multiple, some of which are to add light and heat and to cook plants and animals. 

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Richard Wrangham, a professor of biology and anthropology at Harvard University, argues that cooking was the breakthrough technological innovation that allowed humans to support big brains resulting in the first human, Homo erectus.  According to him cooking provided more calories for existing and reduced the caloric cost of digestion. Homo sapiens evolved from the ability of digesting cooked food with more intake of starches, meat and connective tissue which increases the number of calories in the food available to the human digestive system. Control of fire changed the course of human evolution, allowing our ancestors to stay warm, cook food, ward off predators and venture into harsh climates. It also had important social and behavioral implications, encouraging groups of people to gather together and stay up late. It was regarded by Darwin as the greatest discovery made by humanity. 

Egyptian Civilisation

Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest civilizations on earth. The river Nile rose and flooded the low lying plains and deposited a layer of rich black soil suitable for growing crops. On the banks of Nile river, along the  'Black Land' (black soil region) the first settlement began. Egyptian Civilization also began about 3100 B.C. During this period hunter-gatherers settled in agricultural villages and animals and people migrated into the region from western Asia. Early hunter-gatherers engaged in hunting the many wild species i.e., wild fowl, fish, pigs, cattle, antelope, and gazelle. Slowly they transformed to agriculture and domesticated the wild pigs and wild cattle. The ancient Egyptian cuisine spans over three thousand years. 

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Both poor and rich Egyptians consumed bread and beer as staple food. Egyptians knew the importance of yeast in cooking and they added it while baking the bread and also used it for brewing. They also took green-shooted onions, other vegetables as well as meat and fish as side dish. They fetched milk, cheese, and butter from domesticated cattle and even got meat from their livestock. Their cooking process included stewing, baking, boiling, grilling, frying, or roasting. Animal fat was employed for cooking. They also added spices and herbs to increase the flavor and the spices were imported and therefore spicy food was limited to the wealthy.

They cultivated barley and emmer, (a kind of cereal) as well as vegetables and fruits including melons, peas, fava beans, fenugreek and lentils along the Nile valley. They learned to cook bread and beer and cereals and added honey and dates to sweeten their food and drink. They harvested honey from wild forests and even domesticated bees kept in pottery hives.  The women engaged in beer distillation. Wine was also consumed by the people. They also used grains either as currency to pay taxes or wages or to barter. Egyptians were known for food preservation methods. They constructed 'great silos' to preserve grain for long periods of time and drying and salting practices were employed for fish, vegetables and fruits.

Mesopotamian Civilization

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Mesopotamia (from the Greek, meaning 'between two river  system’ i.e., Tigris–Euphrates ) was an ancient region in the eastern Mediterranean. Presently this region roughly corresponding to most of Iraq and parts of modern-day Iran, Syria and Turkey. The island surrounded by the two river system was known as 'Al-Jazirah' (the island) and was also called as 'Fertile Crescent' by JH Breasted, an Egyptologist. At this island only Mesopotamian civilization began. 

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The civilization was widely considered as one of the cradles of Bronze Age civilization by scholars. Mesopotamia was a collection of varied cultures i.e., Sumer, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian cultures (empires), whose only real bonds were their script, their gods, and nearly equal rights enjoyed by women. Therefore Mesopotamia could be more precisely comprehended as a geographical region that produced manifold empires and civilization. The invention of writing system has taken place independently in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians were also credited for the invention of the wheels. In 1922 A.D., the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered “the remains of two four-wheeled wagons.' Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and possessed their own land; ran their own business; entered into trade contracts; and even filed for divorce. Other important inventions credited to the Mesopotamians include agriculture, irrigation, the sail (sailboats), beer, wine, complex tools, domestication of animals,  sophisticated weaponry and warfare,  the chariot, religious rites and demarcation of time into hours, minutes, and seconds, .Babylon is the most famous city from ancient Mesopotamia whose ruins lie in modern-day Iraq

Sumerians lived in the southernmost part of ancient Mesopotamia which is generally considered the cradle of civilization. Barley, wheat, millet were used as the staple food in the Sumerians diet. It also included chick peas, lentils and beans; onions, garlic and leeks; cucumbers, cress, mustard and fresh green lettuce. Their daily meals comprised barley cake (bread) or barley paste accompanied by onions or beans soaked in barley ale and fish. Meat was consumed in cities than in countryside. and it gets spoiled very quickly due to hot environment.. Instead beef and veal were popular everywhere since people could afford them. 

They were characteristically inventive and evolved the first writing well before 3000 B.C. They wrote on clay tablets and evolved the script known as cuneiform, or "wedge-shaped." Sumerians were also credited for the first written recipes i.e., bilingual Sumerian-Akkadian word lists. These archaeological sources cite the importance of barley bread, of which many varieties are referred, and barley and wheat cakes, and grain and legume soups; of onions, leeks and garlic; of vegetables including chate melon, and of fruits including apple, fig and grape; of honey and cheese; of several culinary herbs; and of butter and vegetable oil. Sumerians more often drank beer and consumed wine occasionally. Wine was well known in northern Mesopotamia. Animal meat consisted of pork, mutton, beef, fowl including ducks and pigeons, and many varieties of fish. Meat was salted and preserved; fruits were conserved in honey; several foods, including apples, were dried. A kind of fermented cause is identified in Akkadian texts.

Mesopotamians cultivated onions, leeks and garlic plants. Barley was their main crop. Rice and corn were unknown to them and wheat cultivation flourished in less saline soil. The fruit cultivation included apples, apricots, cherries, figs, melons, mulberries, pears, plums, pomegranates, and quinces. Barley bread was very popular food stuff. Date was an important fruit crop and date palms were domesticated in southern Mesopotamia,

Indus Valley Civilization

Principal Sites of Indus Valley Civilization PC: Encyclopedia Brittanica

The Indus or Harappan civilization belongs to the Chalcolithic or Bronze Age civilization. Discovery of  the objects of copper and stone were found around 1400 Harappan sites. It is known as Harappan civilization since it was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa, situated in the province of west Punjab in Pakistan. Sir John Marshall was the first person to use the term ‘Indus civilization.’ Evidence of pottery has been found in the early settlements of Mehrgarh from the Indus Valley Civilization. Terracotta pots of all shapes and sizes were found in various Indus Valley sites. 

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People used pots to carry and store many different types of liquids and grains. Copper and bronze plates were also discovered, probably utilized exclusively by wealthy upper class city dwellers. Wheat and barley were used as main staple food and prepared bread as well as gruel or porridge. At certain sites, particularly Gujarat, Indus valley people cultivated some native millets i.e., possibly broom-corn millet. Wild rice was used as fodder for cattle and for this purpose they even cultivated the same crop. However rice does not formed part of their cultivation. They cultivated lentils and other pulses i.e., peas, chickpeas, green gram, black gram etc., Indus valley people must have consumed wide range of fruits, vegetables and spices including: a variety of brassica, brown mustard greens, coriander, dates, jujube, walnuts, grapes, figs, mango, okra, caper, sugarcane, garlic, turmeric, ginger, cumin and cinnamon. The granaries discovered in Indus valley sites points out that cereals were produced in large quantity. It is interesting to take note of bones of wild species such as boar,deer,and gharial (a.k.a the gavial), and the fish-eating crocodile, in Indus valley. Yet another interesting discovery was banana and it is not clear whether banana was cultivated in the Harappan region or obtained through trade.    

Indus valley civilization people were mostly non-vegetarians and very few of them were vegetarians. The people consumed meat and there are evidences to show the funeral offerings made for the deceased and also evidences exist that some people in Harappan sites consumed beef. Archaeological excavations of  number of artefact such as sling balls of clay, copper fish hooks, the arrow heads, the flying knives etc stand as evidence that the Indus valley people used these tools for hunting or fishing. It is also evident that Indus valley people were not only hunters and fishermen but also farmers. They consumed meat and included chicken, wild fowl, venison, antelopes, porcupine, beef, pork, rams, shellfish, fish etc.,.

"In all civilizations we've studied, all cultures that we know of across the Earth and across time have invested some kind of attempt to understanding where where, where they come from, and where they are going." Neil deGrasse Tyson In Time, Earth, Understanding 

Reference

1. A Brief History of Cooking With Fire by Rebecca Rupp http://theplate.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/02/a-brief-history-of-cooking-with-fire/
2. Ancient Civilizations for Kids. https://sites.google.com/site/1ancientcivilizationsforkids/ancient-iraq-mesopotamia
3. Ancient Egypt by  Joshua J. Mark. 02 September 2009. http://www.ancient.eu/egypt/
4. Ancient Egypt. Food Timeline http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodfaq3.html#egypt
5. Ancient Man and His First Civilizations: Homo-habilis, Homo-erectus, Homo-sapien-sapien. http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Homo_habilis_erectus_neanderthal.htm
6. Agyptian Civilization: Daily Life - Food http://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcl02e.shtml
7. Babylon. http://www.ancient.eu/babylon/
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9. Changes in the Indian menu over the ages http://www.thehindu.com/seta/2004/10/21/stories/2004102100111600.htm
10. Cooking https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking
11. Eating Meat. Paul Cooijmans. http://paulcooijmans.com/evolution/eating_meat.html
12. Foraging: Life as a Hunter-Gatherer https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/early-humans/how-did-first-humans-live/a/foraging
13. History of Cooking https://allthatcooking.com/history-of-cooking/
14. History of Cooking https://hubpages.com/food/history-of-cooking
15. History of India upto 8th century  https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1611&chapterid=1637
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18. Man Entered the Kitchen 1.9 Million Years Ago By Jennifer Welsh http://www.livescience.com/15688-man-cooking-homo-erectus.html
19. Mesopotamia. http://www.ancient.eu/Mesopotamia/
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22. What was the food eaten in ancient/Vedic India? https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-food-eaten-in-ancient-Vedic-India

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