Tirunelveli Region Travelogue (Pandyan Yatra 2015) Part 3.3: Kalugasalamurthy Rock cut cave and Kutralanathar Temple, Kutralaum

Facades of Kalugasalamurthy & Kutralanathawami Temples

Kalugasalamurthy Entrance Pillared Hall

Kalugasalamurthy rock cut cave temple excavated on the south-eastern slope of the low rising Araimalai hillock. The present rock cut cave temple has transformed into huge complex with the structural additions such as  shrines for associate (Parivara) deities, mandapas and cloister mandapas and holy water tank. The Lord Jambukesvara (form of Lord Shiva) appear as Shivalinga in the east facing sanctum at the mandapa and the goddess Akilandesvari also appears in a separate south facing sanctum. The pillared mandapa is supported by pillars with aesthetic bas relief sculptures.

The rock cut cave temple can be accessed through a mahamandapa or entrance pavilion (hall) which has two entrances, one at west and the other at north. The structural mahamandapa is actually an extension of the rock cut cave temple. There are two sanctums adjoining to the northern wall of the mahamandapa housing Lord Nataraja and Lord Arumuganayanar (Lord Muruga). The rock cut cave temple consists of a facade, mukha mandapa and sanctum.

Facade

Peacock Vehicle

The facade comprise two stupendous pillars in the middle and pilaster on both ends with the features of square, octagonal kattu and square. The pillars and pilasters are insulated with brass sheets. The original facade of the rock cut temple has been modified to suit the flight of steps and the plinth (floor) formation of the structural main mandapa. The facade, with evenly leveled floor,    is 2.05 mtr in the east - west and 6.30 mtr in the north - west.  The facade also extends by 6.46 mtr in the north - south and 60 cm in the east -west and the height is 2.08 mtr. The flight of four steps (only three in the north) leading to the mukha mandapa pass through the anganas of pillars.  The kapodabandha adishtanam of the facade comprise elements such as upana, supporting upana, thamarai, jagadi, eight patta kumuda, kantha with pada flanked by kampa, pattika and uparikampa and kapota.  

The octagonal kattu of pillars rest on the wide-angular vettu potikas (corbel brackets) which support the prastara elements such as uttara (beam), vajana and roof. The prastara elements also extends as unsculpted kapota. The north and south walls forming part of the mother rock extends evenly up to one mtr.

Mukha mandapa
 

Mukhamandapam From Mahamandapam

Another row of two pillars and two pilasters are cantoning the part of facade and mukha mandapa. The angana (space between pilaster and pillar) at north bears a brick wall partition. The south angana (between pilaster and pillar) modified with brick wall partition with an entrance to the rock cut sanctum. A flight of single step leads to the sanctum. The angana between the two pillars is also modified as the main entrance to the cave sanctum.  The brass sheet insulated pillars bear lotus medallions. The lintel of the main entrance (below the kapota insulated with brass sheet) shows makara torana with goddess Gajalakshmi at the center. The square section of the pillars and wide angular vettu potikas support the prastara elements like vajana and roof. 

Inner mandapa

An inner mandapa is located in between sanctum and mukha mandapa. measuring 6.50 mtrs in the south - north and 2.00 mtrs in the east - west and 2.77 mtrs in height.

Sanctum

 

Sanctum from the Main Mandapam

The flight of single step leads to the sanctum.  The sanctum is a cubical cell with 1.98mts in east-west and 2.48mts in north-south directions. The height of the sanctum is 2.48mts. The anterior wall of the sanctum is sectioned with the four pilasters. There are two platforms constructed adjoining to the south wall of inner mandapa and sanctum.  The sanctum houses Lord Kalugasalamurthy with consorts.

Lord Kalugasalamurthy appears with consorts in Cave sanctum

Lord Kalugasalamurthy appears seated on his pea-cock vehicle in utkudikasana posture. The Lord is accompanied by his two consorts: goddess Valli on his left and facing north and goddess Dheivanai on his right and facing south. The jewelry of the goddesses includes Karanda makuta, pathra kundalas, sarapali, armlets , bracelets and silk garments on their waist. Goddess Dheivanai alone wears breast band. The Lord wears Karanda makuta, patra kundala, pearl and rudrakha beads malas, and silk garments on his waist. Of the twelve hands the upper right hand holds vajra (thunderbolt), middle right  hand holds the khadga (sword), the lower right hand shows abhaya hasta mudra (gesture of fearlessness); the upper left hand holds saktivel (spear), middle hand khetaka (shield) and lower hand varada hasta mudra (gesture of generosity).

Inscriptions

The Vikrama Pandya's 15th regnal year inscription engraved before the sanctum of Lord Jambukesvarar (on the south wall) records the gift of fifty goats and one sheep to provide ghee for burning perpetual lamp by the Sri Rudramaheswara of this temple.  The inscription also mentions about the tank for collecting the ablution water. (ARE 1966: 349 / SII V: 307 - 406).

Period

The scholars have assigned the period of this rock cut temple structure to eighth century A.D. based on its architecture.

Kavadi Chindhu  of poet Annamalai Reddiar

Annamalai Reddiar of Chennimalai, in Tirunelveli district (1865 - 1890 / 1891), an ardent devotee, has composed the 'Kavadi Chindu,' one of the forms of light compositions in Tamil, in praise of Lord Kalugasalamurthy.  ‘Chindu’ means a couplet or poem in Tamil set to a particular meter. Kavadi Chindu, a kind of folk song is sung by ardent Muruga devotees as they carry the ‘kavadi’ to Muruga temples, typically located up on the hillocks, to ease out some of the strain and physical exhaustion resulting from the journey. The stanzas are highly popular for its simplicity, rhymes,  musical rhythm  and melody. The poet also has set to music in ragas like Sindhu Bhairavi, Chakravaham, Ananda Bhairavi, etc. He has also compiled the 'Thalapurana.' (Mythological history). Opposite to Kalugasalamurthy temple there is a small palace which served as local residence of Raja of Ettayapuram.

Reference

Kalugumalai kutaivarai (in Tamil). Nalini, M and Kalaikkovan R. Dr. Maa. Rasamanickanar varalarru ayvu maiyam, Tiruchirapalli. Dec 2009. pp. 76 - 80. (கழுகுமலை குடைவரை (தமிழ்). நளினி, மு; கலைக்கோவன் இரா. டாக்டர். மா. இராசமாணிக்கனார் வரலாற்று ஆய்வு மையம், திருச்சிராப்பள்ளி. டிசம்பர் 2009. பக்கங்கள். 76 - 80)

Lunch Session

 By 1.30 pm we were able to complete our Kalugumalai itinerary. We were so tired as well as hungry and therefore rushed for lunch at a dining hall in a temple choultry maintained by Kalugasalamurthy devasthanam. To our surprise Kizhakku Pathippagam staff have arranged a  delicious home made South Indian Variety Rice Lunch. We enjoyed the home made lunch and relaxed till 3.00 pm. We also had group photo sessions.

Travel to Kutralam

Location: 72 km from Kalugumalai; 55 kms from Tirunelveli; 6 kms from Tenkasi; Located in the Southern part of Tamil Nadu state, India.

Nearest Railway Station: Tenkasi or Senkottai

Nearest Airport: Madurai (around 200 kms)

How to reach: Easily reachable by road from Tirunelveli, Tenkasi, or Madurai

Since our itinerary for the Day 3 was tight, we planned to save as much time as possible. So the rest of the day's travel and night stay was planned at Kutralam (anglicised version is Courtalum), `the Spa of South.'  With new regained energy we continued our travel towards Kutralam (Courtallum), the land of cascading waterfalls. 

The entire travel route of 72 km between Kalugumalai and Kutralam was filled with lush green paddy fields and coconut groves and we traveled through the heritage towns like Puliyangudi, Kadayanallur, Ilanji, Tenkasi and countless picturesque villages.

We reached the town by 4.30 pm. After refreshment we rushed to the Kutralanathaswami temple near main falls.

Kutralanathaswami Temple (குற்றாலநாதசுவாமி கோவில்)

Entrance to Kutralanathaswami Temple

• Name of the Shrine: Kutralanathaswami Temple (குற்றாலநாதசுவாமி கோவில்)
• Other Names of the Shrine: Trikootaachalam, Tirukkutralam, Mukthiveli, Nannagram, Pithur Kanda, Theerthapuram, Thirunagaram and Vasanthaperur.
• Prime deity (மூலவர்): Lord Shiva appears here as Kutralanathaswami (குற்றாலநாதசுவாமி) aka Kuruambaleeswarar (குறும்பாலீஸ்வரர்). The main sanctum of this temple houses dwarf Shivalingam.
• Five Dance Halls of Lord Nataraja: Kutralam represents one of the 5 Pancha Sabhas (பஞ்ச சபை) of Nataraja - Chitra Sabhai (சித்திர சபை).  
• Amman shrine: Goddess Kuzhalvoymozhi (குழல்வாய்மொழி அம்மை) appears in a separate sanctum on the southern side of prime deity.
• Inner Periphery (உள்பிரகாரம்) - Associate Deities (பரிவார தேவதைகள்): The peedams of Annavi Pillai (அண்ணாவி பிள்ளை) and the other associate deities appear before Amman shrine. Lord Kailasanathar appears on the southern corridor and goddess Durga on the northern corridor.
• Outer Periphery (வெளிப்பிரகாரம்) - Associate Deities (பரிவார தேவதைகள்): Vallabha Ganapathi (வல்லபகணபதி), 63 Nayanmars, Sahasralingam (one thousand lingam), Papanasar - Ulagamman, Nellaiyappar - Gandhimathi, Manakkolanathar (மணக்கோலநாதர் (சிவன்), Narumbunathar, Sankaralinganathar, Pavalavannathar - Oppanai Amman, Chokkalingam - Meenakshi Amman, Madunatheswarar - Aramvalartha Nayagi, Kasi Viswanathar - Visalakshi, Bairavar, Nannagara Perumal (நன்னகரப்பெருமாள்), Navagraha, sage Agastyar and others.
• Holy Tree: Dwarf Jack fruit tree (Kurumpalaa) (குறும்பலா) (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
• Holy water: The main falls (Shivamadhuganga சிவமதுகங்கை), Vadaaruvi (வட அருவி) and Chitra River (சித்ரா நதி)
• Holy Hymn: Invoked in Tevaram (தேவாரம்), Tiruvasagam (திருவாசகம்), Tirukkovaiyar (திருக்கோவையார்) hymns by Tevaram foursome (தேவர நால்வர்) (Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar). The name Kutralam finds its place for the first time in Tevaram. Sekkizhar also glorifies the town and the Lord in his  Periapuranam. Sages like Pattinathar and Arunagirinathar have also sung stanzas in praise of the Lord.
• Literature: Tirikootaraasappa kavirayar's (திரிகூடராசப்பகவிராயர்) well known work Kutrala Kuravanji (குற்றாலக்குறவஞ்சி), poetic drama (இசைநாடகம்) (composed during 19th century A.D.) glorifies this shrine. This unique Tamil poetic form has Vasanthalakshmi as heroine, Sinki (Kurathi), nomadic tribal woman and foreteller making predictions about the hero and Sinkan (Kuravan) her husband. He has also compiled the Shrine history of Kutralam (குற்றாலத் தலபுராணம்).

Legends:

Pothigai Hills

Sage Agastyar (அகஸ்திய முனிவர்), at the instruction of Lord Shiva, proceeded to the south (Pothihgai Hills) to stabilize the imbalance of the earth. The Devas and all other celestial beings assembled at Mount Kailash (abode of Lord Shiva) in Himalayas to witness the celestial wedding of Lord Shiva and goddess Parvati. This resulted the imbalance of the earth. At Kutralam shrine (originally the Vaishnava shrine) sage Agastya was prevented at the entrance by the Dwarpalakas of Lord Vishnu. Sage Aagastya invoked Lord Kumaran (Lord Muruga) of Ilanji (இலஞ்சி) (2 km. away from Kutralam).

Agastyar

Lord Kumaran instructed Agastya to enter into Kutralam shrine and  he entered the shrine disguised as Mularikanna, a Vaishnavite devotee from Tirupati. Agastya followed the instruction and entered into the shrine and directed the priest to fetch flowers for archana. Thereafter the sage took "Omni-form" or "Viswaroopa" (விஸ்வரூபம்) before Lord Vishnu and put his hand on the head of the the Vishnu deity and pushed it  to shrink into extremely dwarf Shivalingam. Thus Kutralam was transformed as the Saivite shrine. Lord Shiva showed himself here as Bhrama and Vishnu.

History

This temple has more than 2000 years old history. It is believed that the temple was constructed even before 5th century B.C. Since Sangam literature (சங்க இலக்கியம்) describes the 'Pothigai' hills (பொதிகை மலை), Kutralam town could have been one among the towns of Sangam period.

“பொற்கோட்டு இமயமும் பொதியமும் போன்றே” (புறம் 2:8) புறநானூற்றுப் பாடல் 

""வடவர் தந்த வான் கேழ் வட்டம் / குட புல உறுப்பின் (அகம். 340.16-17-வடநாட்டில் உள்ளவர் கொண்டு வந்த வெண்ணிற வட்டக் கல்லில் மேற்கே உள்ள பொதிகை மலை)

The Ay dynasty ruled parts of southern India from the early Sangam age to the 10th century AD. Among the Ay (ஆய்) rulers of the Sangam Age, Ay Antiran (ஆய் அண்டிரன்) is  the most outstanding chieftain of this Velir clan. The Velirs were regarded as the 3rd chain of Philanthropists (கடை ஏழு வள்ளல்கள்). Ay Antiran's name is mentioned in the Purananuru as the lord of Podiyil Malaya in southern Western Ghats.

Dwarf Jack fruit (Holy) Tree

Kochenganan (கோச்செங்கனான்), the Chola monarch of early Sangam era, built number of temples in Tamilakam. He also set forth the specific tree as the 'holy tree' (Sthala Vriksham) (தலவிருட்சம்) for that specific shrine. Thus Kutralanathaswami shrine was associated with Jack fruit tree (குறும்பலா) aka Artocarpus heterophyllus. From the foregoing evidences lead the scholars to believe that Kutralanathaswami worship could have existed since from Sangam period. Poet Kapiladeva Nayanar (புலவர் கபிலதேவ நாயனார் aka கபிலபரணர்), believed to have lived during 10th century A.D., describes Kutralam town in poetical work 'Sivaperuman Tiruvandadhi' (சிவபெருமான் திருவந்தாதி) as:

   கொக்கரங் குற்றாலம் கூற்றின் பொருள் முயன்ற குற்றாலம் ('Kokarang kutralam koorrin porul muyanra Kutralam')

    கொழுந்தேன் கமழ் சோலைக் குற்றாலம் ('Kozhunthen kamazh solaik Kutralam') 

Lord Nataraja Chitra Sabha

Kutralam is one among the five dance floors (பஞ்ச சபை) of Lord Nataraja (Shiva). It is known as Chitra sabha (சித்திர சபை). Among 14 Shiva shrines of Pandya country, Kutralam is believed to the most ancient. Parasakthi Peetam (பராசக்தி பீடம்), one among the 64 Sakti peetams (சக்தி பீடம்), forms part of Kutralanathaswami temple. The peetam is also known as Yoga peetam, Dharani peetam (தரணி பீடம்) and Arutparasakthi peetam.


Architecture: 

The temple has a conch (சங்கு) shaped corridor (Prakaram) plan and is referred to as  Sangakkovil. The present Kutralanathaswami temple was constructed by the Chola monarch Rajaraja Chola I (முதலாம் இராசராச சோழன்) and built the wall around the inner corridor. Archaeologist claim that there was a Vishnu shrine on the left of the prime deity. The Pandya kings built the sanctum, ardha mandapa, separate sanctum for goddess Kulalvai mozhi amman and Pillayan Kattalai mandapa (பிள்ளையன் கட்டளை மண்டபம்). Nayakka rulers constructed the temple for Parasakthi, periphery wall, inner streets, Sangu street (சங்கு வீதி), new sanctums for some associate deities. The ancient sanctum meant for Vishnu is now being converted as Vagana room. Kings of Vadakarai Aadhikkam (வடகரை ஆதிக்கம்) of Sokkampatti (சொக்கம்பட்டி) built the Thirikooda mandapam (திரிகூட மண்டபம்), Pasupirai (பசுபிறை), Thattodi (தட்டோடி), vaitheeyappa vilasam (வைத்தியப்ப விலாசம்), the mahamandapam of Kulalvai mozhi amman, sangai veethi and kalpavuthal (கல்பாவுதல்) at vasantha veethi. 

Inscriptions

Inscription on the Pillar

Kutralanathaswami temple has 89 inscriptions in total.  Of the 89, ten inscriptions discovered on the east and west walls of the first periphery records the gifts of cow, sheep, goat, buffalo for burning perpetual lamp (நந்தா விளக்கு) and endowments of land, gold and coins to the Tirukutrala Perumal temple by the Chola monarch Madiraikonda Ko-Parakesarivarman (மதிரை கொண்ட கோப்பரகேசரிவர்மன்) aka Parantaka Chola I (முதலாம் பராந்தக சோழன்) (907–955 A.D.). In the entire Pandya country, the inscriptions of Parantaka Chola I in Tamil Vattezhuthu (தமிழ் வட்டெழுத்து)  script were discovered only in Kutralanathaswami temple.

Inscription in Vattezhuthu script on the east wall of the first prakara Kuttalanathasvami temple assignable to Parantaka I

Inscription

It records a gift of 26 cows for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple of Tirukkurralattu-Perumal (திருக்குற்றாலத்துப் பெருமாள்) by Adittan Muvenda-Palla[varaiyan] (ஆதித்தன் மூவேந்த பல்லவராயன்) of Arrur in Tiruppanangattu-nadu (திருப்பனங்காட்டு நாடு) in Solanadu.  (A.R. No. 444 of 1917) (The inscription mentions the name of the Lord as ‘Tirukkurralattu-Perumal’ )

It records a gift of 26 cows for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple by Dharma-setti (தர்ம செட்டி) alias Sadaiyan Kavayan (சடையன் கவயன்) a member of the Manigramam (மணிக்கிராமம்) (guild) at . . . . in Tenvara-nadu. (A.R. No. 439 of 1917)

vatteluttu script and is damaged.  It records a gift of cows for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple by a lady by name Ariyampoduviyar (அறியாம்பொதுவையார்) wife of [Na]ranappallavaraiyar (நாரணப்பல்லவராயர் ). (A.R. No. 442 of 1917)

It records a gift of 25 sheep for burning a lamp with an ulakku of ghee (உழக்கு நெய்) every day in the temple of Mahadeva (மகாதேவ) at Tirukkurralam by one Nakkan Appi Tirumurtti (நக்கன் அப்பி திருமூர்த்தி).   (A.R. No. 428 of 1917) (This inscription observe the Lord's name as  ‘Mahadeva at Tirukkurralam' )

22nd regnal  year of Parantaka I. This is a damaged Vatteluttu inscription assignable to Parantaka I. It records gift of 16 ma of land for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple at Tirukkurralam in Tenvari-nadu (தென்வரி நாடு) by Kandan Iravi (கந்தன் இரவி), made on the day of a solar eclipse (சூரிய கிரகணம்). (A. R. No. 441 of 1917.)

35 regnal year of Parantaka I It  records a gift of 6 buffaloes for burning a perpetual lamp in the temple at Tirukkurralam in Tenvari-nadu ((தென்வரி நாடு)) by Kovadi Kdnra ... a ywwv  Vellala resident of Vallapuram in Mala-nadu. (A.R. No. 447 of 1917) (The inscriptions of Paranthaka also cite the date and time of the 'solar eclipse' which enabled the scholars to precisely compute the period of Paranthaka I. ). There is also one inscription in Tamil script.  

Three inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola I (முதலாம் இராசராச சோழன்) discovered on the western wall of the first periphery records the renovation work carried over the dilapidated structure as well as the construction of new mandapas. The Chola monarch also copied the Vattezhuthu Tamil inscriptions and inscribed back after renovation. The prime deity was mentioned in his inscriptions as 'Kutralathu Bhattaragar' (குற்றாலத்து பட்டாரகர்). The Chola emperor also left an inscription (which is not readable now) to tell us about structural additions made to this temple as well as the transformation  of Tamil script from Vattezhuthu Tamil script. The fragmented inscription of Rajendra Chola I (முதலாம் இராசேந்திர சோழன்) discovered on the third pillar of the eastern corridor in the first periphery. 

Palmyra Sap + Tender Palm Fruit 

On our way to Chitra Sabha, we were invited by the vendor selling Pathaneer (பதநீர்) (palmyrah sap) with Nungu (நுங்கு) or tender palm fruit or ice apple cocktail. All tourists gathered around his bicycle carrying a pot full of palm juice and bunches of  nungu. The cocktail juice was served in fan shaped palmyra (Borassus) leaf (பனை மட்டை) folded like a pot and we consumed it in gulps.

Chitra Sabha (Murals)

The Chitra Sabhai aka the hall of paintings is located nearer to the main temple. There is a holy water tank before Chitra Sabhai. Architecturally rich Chitrasabha showcaes hundreds of murals on the walls depicticting scenes from Hindu Puranas. Chitra Sabha murals are drawn out of medicinal herbs. The wooden carved planks serve as doors, beams, cornices and roof structure. The temple authorities have conserved the paintings and they appear bright with modern touch. The roof of the painting hall is covered with copper sheets. Unfortunately they are not allowing photography.


Kutralam 'the Spa of South'

Main Falls

Kutralum is situated at an elevation of about 167m (520 ft) on the Western Ghats. Numerous rivers such as the Chittar River (சித்தாறு), the Manimuthar River (மணிமுத்தாறு), and the Pachaiyar River (பச்சையாறு) originate here. The mother nature's own water slides from the peaks of mountains and drops from hundreds of feet as small cascades as well as thundering waterfalls. It is certainly a feast to our eyes to watch the surreal landscape and the water cascades from every ledge and crevice. 

Five Falls

Snuggled in the Western Ghats, there are nine waterfalls in 10 Sq.km area around Kutralam town. The main falls located near the temple. Five falls (Aintharuvi - ஐந்தருவி) lies 4 km away from main falls.  Small falls (Chittaruvi - சித்தருவி) lies between main fall and five falls. Chembakadevi falls (செம்பகாதேவி அருவி) lies deep into the forest and devotees visit this falls and Agastya temple on full moon days. Honey falls (Thenaruvi - தேனருவி) is located still more deep into the thick forest. Old falls (Old Kutralam falls - பழைய குற்றாலம் அருவி) is 8 km away from the town. On your way to Old falls you may find Tiger falls (Puliaruvi - புலியருவி). Also there are two falls New falls (Puthiyaruvi - புதியருவி) and fruits garden falls (Pazhathotta aruvi - பழத்தோட்ட அருவி).  It is believed that the water has medicinal and therapeutic properties and also cures physical ailments since it flows through forests full of herbs. Therefore this popular health resort attracts tourists to have bath, enjoy the soothing effects of water current and to get relieved from pains and body aches rapidly and regain energy. With the advent of the season the oil masseurs (use til oil, sandal oil and herbal oils) are in great demand.

Kutralam has moderately chilling climate throughout the year and filled with scenic surroundings. During the season (period June to September in every year) thousands of tourists from far and near visit this place to enjoy the sizzling of rain drops of 'Saral' (சாரல்) season and cool breeze from Pothikai hills (பொதிகைத் தென்றல்). The town also markets spices like clove and cardamom and exotic varieties of fruits such as jack fruit, mangoostan, doarian, ramdan, egg fruit etc.

Our Stay at Kutralam: Merriment and Gaiety

Hotel Saral Resort

During night we stayed at Hotel Saral Resorts at Shengottai Road. The surrounding of the hotel was calm and quiet. The room was spacious, clean and maintained hygienic with all the amenities. The food at the hotel was delicious. It is a nice place to stay.

After refreshing coffee few of us went to the Main falls for bathing. One can bath safely at anytime at the main falls even in midnight. The `bath police' is there to regulate the crowd. The flow of water in this main falls will be depending up on the rain fall in the catchment region in Kerala. However main falls will have little flow of water even during summer. The scenic beauty of Chitar river sliding from top of Sahya mountain and falling with thunderous rhythm. We found both ladies and gents were enjoying the water current under the falls. Water droplets  moisturize the air and make the atmosphere very chilling . We had the fun time under the falls.

Double Bedroom

The restaurant of  Hotel Saral served buffets of the appetizing delicacies of South Indian menu for dinner. After peaceful sleep in the hotel room, every one joined for a bath in the early morning at five falls (Aintharuvi). The water flow was minimum. Yet we enjoyed our bath for an hour. After bath we packed our luggage and vaccated the hotel and assembled for breakfast in the restaurant. The South Indian breakfast was scrumptious. Now we are ready for our Day 3 journey.


Reference

Thiru Courtrallanathar Swamy Temple. Courtrallam (TNHRCE Website)

Tirunelveli Region Travelogue (Pandyan Yatra 2015) Part 3.2: Kalugumalai Jain Monastery

 

Picture courtesy: Bhusavalli Pandyan Yatra 2015 Kalugumalai Jain Monastery

Kazhugumalai Jain Monastery 

Kalugumalai is an ancient Jain heritage site that has the natural cavern with rock beds where Jain ascetics observed vigorous penance and an academic center for imparting knowledge in Jain theology for 300 years during early Pandya regime. A veritable open-air gallery of diminutive sculptures of Jina or Tirthankara in three long rows, bold relief panels of Jinas - Adinatha, Parsvanatha, Mahavira, Bahubali, Ambika Yakshi and Padmavati Yakshi. The open-air bas relief is an ensemble of over one hundred and fifty images sculpted with great skills on top of the granite rocky expanse.

The Jain ascetics,  sravakas (disciple), male scholars (bhttarars) and women scholars (kurattigal or nuns) from far off places in Tamilakam traveled to Kalugumalai and stayed in the natural caverns and resolved to spend their lives in splendid isolation, engaging themselves in contemplation and religious pursuits. They also taught or learned Jain theology and propagated Jainism from the 8th century A.D.  Kalugumalai is a "must go place" if you like Jain heritage and architecture. The name Kalugumalai (vultures' hill) originated quite recently i.e, about 200 years or less.

History of Jainism under Early Pandya Reign

It is important, for one who knows little about Jainism, to understand the history of Jainism under early Pandya reign to realize the intense rivalry of vedic or brahminical religion and the up-rise of the Bakthi movement and the hostile conditions under which Jains have survived and maintained and practiced their religion.

The 24 Tirthankaras or Arihants or Jinas were instrumental in spreading the doctrines of Jainism. Among the 24 Tirthankaras the first 22 were mythological personages and Parswantaha the 23rd Tirthankara (877–777 B.C.) and Mahavira the 24th Tirthankara (599 –527 B.C.) were the historical personages. The Sruktakevalin Badrabahu (433 - 357 BC ?) and Vaisaka Munivar, the last two pattadhars or disciples of Mahavira (totally 11 pattadhars or disciples),  were instrumental in founding Jainism in Tamil Nadu, especially in the early Pandya country. On foreseeing famine in large magnitude, Badrabahu left the Kingdom of Magada with the Maurya King Chandragupta (340 BC - 298 BC) and the Jain followers and reached Sravanabelagola in Mysore. Badrabahu acted as the Jain Acharya (religious head) of the Jains. From Sravanabelagola Badrabahu sent his disciple, Vaisaka Munivar, to the neighboring Chola and Pandya kingdoms to spread the gospel of Jainism to the laity.  It is believed that these mendicants reached the Pandya country first as early as the Sangam period - around 300 B.C. The Pandya rulers of the Sangam era were tolerant and broad minded in their religious prospect and hence all religions including Jainism prospered during their reign.

Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text affirms that Jainism was followed in Tamil Nadu even before the 3rd century B.C. Some other scholars believe that Jainism entered South India well before the visit of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta around 6th century B.C. During 3rd century A.D. Digambara, a sect of Jainism with nudist adherents, recognized itself from the Svetambara, another sect with white-clad adherents. Digambara monks observed full monastic life  and the female wore white clothes and called as Aryikas. The Mula sangh (original assembly) was the ancient assembly and monastic order of Jain monks came from 430 A.D. and this Mula sangh was divided into four major groups: 1. Nandi Gana (நந்தி கணம்), 2. Sena Gana (சேன கணம்),  3. Deva Gana (தேவ கணம்) and 4. Simha Gana (சிம்ம கணம்). Every Gana had sub-sects such as Kachai (கச்சை) and Anvayam (அனுவயம்). The Pallankoil copper plate (பல்லன் கோயில் செப்பேடு) mentions about Vajra Nandi (வஜ்ர நந்தி), the Chief Jain monk Nandi Gana. Another Chola inscription refers about Gani Sekara Maruporsuryan, name of Jain monk from Nandi Gana. Tirugnana Sambandar (திருஞான சம்மந்தர்) in one of his Tevaram hymns (தேவாரம் பதிகம்) cites few monks such as  Kanaka Nandi, Putpa Nandi, Bhavana Nandi, Kumanama Sunaka Nandi, Kunaka Nandi and Dhivana Nandi from Nandi Gana. Bhava Nandi is the author who composed the Tamil Grammar work.

    ‘‘கனக நந்தியும் புட்ப நந்தியும் பவண நந்தியும் குமணமா
    சுனக நந்தியும் குணக நந்தியும் திவண நந்தியும் மொழிகொளா

    அனக நந்தியர்’’

Dramila Sanga (திரமிள சங்கம்) or Dravida Sanga (திராவிட சங்கம்) branched from Nandi Gana and Vajra Nandi was instrumental in instituting Dravida Sanga in Madurai in 470 A.D. (Vikrama year விக்கிரம ஆண்டு - 526).


However the splendid era of Jainism reached its down-slope due to intense rivalry between the vedic or brahminical religions and the up-rise of the Bhakti movement (பக்தி இயக்கம்) in Tamilakam (தமிழகம்) during 7th century  influenced the decline of Jainism in the 7th century A.D. Soon Jainism recovered from the adversities and it became a religion accommodating of the practices from brahmanical religion to withstand religious animosity and the sectarian rancor.

Jain Iconography

Jainism and Jain iconography attached much importance to ritualistic practices and idolatry worship of Jina, Arihant, or 24 Tirthankaras. Jain iconography depicts Tirthankara or Jina appear seated in a lotus posture on the lion throne or standing meditative posture (kayotsarga). The Tirthankaras generally have a triangular mole symbol (Sri-vatsa mark) on their chest, a triple umbrella and a circular halo (radiant light drawn around the head) above their heads and a distinctive lanchana or symbol indicated on the pedestal. The lanchanas are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara. Unless the conspicuous lanchana of Tirthankara shown or his name finds mention in dedicatory inscriptions, it is not possible to differentiate the specific Tirthankara image. Two exceptions are there: Parsvanatha identified with five hooded serpent and Adinatha (Rishabanatha) with lock falling on his shoulders.

The early ascetic-abodes in natural cavern (wherein iconic and ritualistic worship of Tirthankaras and their attendant deities received little attention  till about the 6th century A.D.) lost their prominence in the wake of Bhakti movement.  Yaksha and yakshini, or male and female Sasana-devatas or demigods or attendant / guarding spirits, who are also the devotees the Tirthankaras. According to Jain belief, Indra appoints one Yaksha and one Yakshini to serve as attendants for each Tirthankara. Soon the cult of Yakhas like Yaksharaja (Sarvahna or Sarvanubhuti) and Dharanendra Yaksha as well as Yakshis like Ambika, Chakreswari Devi, Jvalamalini, Padmavati Yakshini became popular. 

Several Jaina cavern in Pandyan region including Anamalai, Alagarmalai, Aivarmalai, Chitaral, Kilakuyilkudi,  Kalugumalai, Tirupparankunram, Uttamapalayam etc could be mentioned as the best examples for such new development.  Further to this Jain monks like Ajjanandi bhatarar, Gunasahara bhatara, Kanakanandi bhatara of Kurandai, Pavanandi bhatara, Arattanemi bhatarar, Vajranandi  and few others played the predominant role in spreading Jainism and Jain iconography and speeding up its growth. (SII, Vol. XIV, No. 102; Vol. 5, Nos. 310, 311, 359, 380, 397 etc.).

Pandya kings like Maran Sendan (-624 A.D.) and Arikesari Parankusa (624-674 A.D.) reposed strong faith in Jainism and the later Pandya rulers like Srimara Srivallabha (811-860 A.D) and Parantaka Viranaryana (866-911 A.D), lent adequate support to Jainism and Jain iconography. The inscriptions of Parantaka Viranarayana found at Kalugumalai as well as in Anaimalai, Arivarmalai and Arittapatti speak about the growth of monastic establishments here.

Kalugumalai Jain Bas Relief Images

Lisa Nadine Owen in her monograph, 'Demarcating sacred space: The Jina images at Kalugumalai' published in International Journal of Jaina Studies. 6 (4): 2010. pp 1 -28, explored the types arrangement of approximately one hundred and fifty independent bas relief sculptures of Jinas and Jain deities on the surface of its rock formations in Kalugumalai accompanied by individual donative inscriptions. The rectangular or square niches present the bas relief images. The author represented five separate  groups of images, based on the directional approach - the order in which one views the bas reliefs from north-west to south-east and not based on the chronology order i.e, from ninth or early tenth century A.D. (chronology as viewed by the author) for further analysis and discussion.

Group 1

From the Sastha temple you may find steps leading to the lone panel of Jina / Tirthankara. The rock face is enclosed within barbed wire fence. Lisa Owen categorizes this lone Jina / Tirthankara as Group 1. The deeply hewn niche measures about four feet in height. The Jina appear seated on lion pedestal with an elaborate throne back comprising a bolster and crossbar decorated with makara and vyla motifs at both the ends.  Behind the crossbar two fly-whisk bearers come out into view; also two more ardent male followers located at the sides of throne base. The Jina is crowned by the triple umbrella (chattra). The Tirthankara is seated under the broader canopy of foliage curls. The five foliage circle motifs are arranged in a semi-circle form and the middle circle bear the figurine of dancing girl and the four other circles bear four male musicians (two of the playing long string instrument and two others beat the drum with a pair of cymbals. The ethereal figures appear on top and to the sides of Jina with hands holding the lotus flowers and offering homage. Also figurines in a panel depicting a horse rider and an emerging elephant. Date assigned by the author - ninth or early tenth century.

Group 2 Jain Image Panels

Group 2

To the south - east of Group 1, five panels appear on a rock face just behind an Ayyanar temple. Lisa Owen assigns these panels as Group 2. The Ayyanar temple complex presents Ayyanar, Tamil village folk (prime) deity, gigantic and colorful statues of companion deities of Ayyanar seen mounted on horses or elephants. The Ayyanar temple, constructed about 100 years before the rock face, prevents from viewing the Group 2 and Group 3 panels.  Three distinctly bold panels, striking iconographic resemblance with Group 1 panels, are arranged horizontally across the rock face. The iconographic elements include lion throne, triple umbrella, halo, tree, fly-whisk attendants, standing devotees etc. The panel at the far left strikes precise similitude with the Jina appearing in Group I panel including five foliage circles bearing the dancer, musicians, horse riders and the elephant at the center. Above these two bolder bas reliefs, a long panel bears the series of seven diminutive images of  Jinas appear seated on double lotus seat (lion throne absent) and crowned by triple umbrella. The Group 2 images are accompanied with donative inscriptions.

Group 3

The panels of bas reliefs forming Group 3,  arranged on the broader rock face, are available somewhere contiguous to Group 2 panels.  The Group 3 major panels present both kinds i.e, individual Jinas appear seated on thrones as well as Jinas / Tirthankaras appear in series. Also there are minor panels which include lone Tirthankara figurines with triple umbrella and double lotus seat.

Group 3 Jain Image Panels

Parsvanatha Panel:

Parsvanatha, the twenty third Tirthankara and the historic personage who lived in the 8^th century B.C. He was the the son of King Ashvasena and Queen Vamanadevi of Varanasi and was the prince of Ikshavaku dynasty. The prince abdicated at the age of thirty and became an ascetic. He attained kevalagnana (absolute knowledge) and became the twenty-third Tirthankara or Jina. He is recognized with the blue hue and a seven hooded serpent. He appears with his Yaksha  Dharaṇendra and Yakshi Padmavati.

An interesting legend about the previous life of Parsvanatha reveals his association with his Yaksha,  Yakshi and Kamdan. The Jina in his previous life attempted to protect a pair of serpents from being burnt in sacrificial fire of a brahmin. The Jina reborn as 23rd Tirthankara and the serpents were also reborn as Naga King Dharanendra and Naga Queen Padmavati.  The brahmin also reborn as a demon Kamdan. Kamdan was disturbing the Jina from attaining Kevalagnana and engaged in attacking with fire, torrential

Group 3 Parsvanatha Panel

Bahubali (Sankrit) aka Gommatesvara (Kannada) Panel

Bahubali is an outstanding name in the Jain legends. He was the second of the hundred sons of the first Tirthankara, Adinatha. The warrior prince fought with his on brother Bharata for the share of his father's kingdom. He conquered everything from his brother and could have become an emperor; instead he returned everything to the brother and chose the ascetic life and proceeded to the forest to perform asceticism. While he was in meditation for longer duration, the vines encircled all through his body. Though he attained kavalagnana, he never prophesy Samavasarana. Hence he is not considered as Tirthankara. The panel depicts Bahubali covered with vine creeper all over his legs and appear with two of his female attendants (Vidyadhari).

Group 3 Bahubali Panel

There is an iconographic convention of  pairing of Parsvanatha and Bahubali and the combination is prominent in the Jain caves at Aihole (7th century) and at Ellora (9th century) and other places including Kalugumalai.

After Group 3 panels the rock face shows a smooth bend and the huge tree with its projected branches provide shade. The panels of Groups 4 and 5 are noticed around the rock surface.

Group 4

Group 4 Jain Image Panels

The shallow depth panels bearing the bas reliefs, forming Group 4, are sculpted on the rock face in the lower right corner and the rock formation above the panels is shaped like a canopy.  The shelter appears like a natural cavern and the same could have been modified subsequently as panels of Jina bas relifs. The panels measuring about two feet depth and the central panel presents three Tirthankaras appear seated on double lotus seat and crowned by triple umbrella. The central panel is flanked by Bahubali and Parsvanatha appear standing in separate panels. Four more Jinas appear seated on the left corner panels and the right corner panels also present seated Jinas. The bas relifs are accompanied by donative inscriptions.

Group 5

The huge rock face presents highest number of bas reliefs forming Group 5 panels are nearer to this rock face. Panoramic array of sculpted panels are located on the far right side and are arranged in three rows and depict the seated Jinas on double lotus seat or lion throne and crowned by triple umbrella. Few panels also depict tanding Jinas with the respective iconographic style. Some othe bas reliefs of Jinas situated on the far left side of the rock face appear incomplete.

Group 5 Largest Jain Panels

Yakshi Padmavati Panel

Two Group 5 panels are also dedicated to Yakshi Ambika and Padmavati. Padmavati is adorned with karanda makuta and appear seated on single lotus pedestal in Lalitasana posture under five serpent hoods. The yakshi holds the fruit and rosary in her lower left and right hands and the upper hands hold a goad and a snake. Her panel is taller than the panels of her attendants. Two female attendants appear with flywhisks.

Yakshi Ambika, Husband, 2 Children & Lion

Yakshi Ambika aka Kusmandini attendant (Sasanadevi) to Tirthankara Neminatha occupies the pivotal position in Jain iconography. The cult of Ambika is popular during 7th - 12th century A.D. She appear in an exclusive panel with her husband and two children, a lion (simha) as her vehicle, and the holy tree 'kalpavriksha (areca nut tree).' 'Her husband is shown with a hand raised and his face has no detailing so as to depict his awe and the glare from her "golden appearance" falling on him.'

Legend of Ambika: Ambika and her two children were banished from the house by her husband Somasarman since she offered food (intended for sraddha ceremony) to the Jain monk. While her banishment they were feeling hungry and by divine intervention a mango tree and a water body came to their sight and they ate mangoes. Some miraculous events at Ambika's houehold turned her husband to justify Ambika's actions for a noble cause. Hence he decided to call his family back to his home. On seeing her husband Ambika got frightened and tried to hide herself. She died while hiding from her husband. Ambika was reborn as Sasanadevi to Neminatha Tirthankara. After the death her husband also reborn as her lion vehicle.

Kalugumalai Inscriptions (Vatteluttu)
 
The Jain Monastery at Kazhugumalai has 100 Vattezhuthu (வட்டெழுத்து) inscriptions (SII Vol V, No. 308 - SII Vol V, No. 406; Epi. Ind., Vol. XV, f.. n. 6.) and they are inscribed below the bas reliefs as label inscriptions.

Period:

From the available inscriptions it is inferred by scholars that they belong to different period. They have been generally ascribed to 8th century A.D. However K.V.Ramesh, eminent Epigraphist and former Joint Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) assigns them to the 10th - 11th century A.D.

Records, Messages

The prime Jaina deity at Kalugumalai Jain monastery referred to in the inscriptions as Araimalai Alvar of Tirunechuram (SII Vol.V, No. 357, 361). There are about one hundred and fifty sacred images (bas reliefs) were caused to be made by the followers of Jain faith (Tamil Jains) from a number of adjacent villages. The sacred images were caused to be made for the merit of their parents, bhttarars, kurattigal, village elders, Pandya officials and others. The largest donor was Pandya King Maran Sadayan who donated 17 sacred images. Among the other donors include the artisans like carpenters, potters, smiths as well as cultivators and others. Tirunechuram (திருநேச்சுரம்) was also referred to as Ilanechuram (இளநேச்சுரம்) vide an epigraph (SII, Vol. V, No. 369) as well as Perunechuram (பெருநேச்சுரம்) vide epigraph (SII, Vol. V, No. 361). 


The Kalugumalai monastery marked the revival of Jainism in Pandya country. Gunasahara bhattarar (குணசாஹர பட்டாரர்) of Tirunechuram was probably the chief among the monks looking after Jain establishments as well as endowments at Kalugumalai (ARE 117/1894, SII, Vol. V, No. 406). His  disciples administered the academic functions and services. Inscriptions refer to the order of monks and nuns in the Digambara Jain monasticism in Kalugumalai. An Acharya (ஆச்சாரியா) is the highest leader of a Jain order. Upadhyaya (உபாத்யாயா) is the learned monk, who both teaches and studies himself.  Bhattara (பட்டாரா) or Bhattarar (பட்டாரர்) is the male disciple or monk and Bhattari (பட்டாரி) is the female disciple or nun (SII, Vol. V, No. 356). A Muni (முனி) is an ordinary ascetic and Aryikas (ஆரீக) is an ordinary woman ascetic. Women disciples referred as Manakkigal (மாணாக்கிகள்) and women teachers as Kurattigal (குரத்திகள்). Jain scholars and teachers (monks and nuns) from far-off Jain abodes and monasteries such as  Tirumalai, (திருமலை), Tirupparuttikunram (Jina Kanchi) (திருப்பருத்திக்குன்றம்), Perumandur (பெருமாண்டூர்), and Tirunarungondai (திருநறுங்கொண்டை),   traveled to Kalugumalai to pursue and propagate Jain theology and stayed in the natural caverns.  (SIL, Vol. V, Nos. 333, 334, 341,345, 355, 356,369, 371, 372, 373.) -  Tiruchara-nattuk-kurattigal (திருச்சார நாட்டுக் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 324, 326); Nalkur Kurattigal (நால்கூர் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 355, 356);  Ilanechuram Kurattigal (இளநேச்சுரக் குரத்திகள்)  (SII, Vol. V. No. 369); Kurattigal of Tirumalai (திருமலைக் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 370); Kurattigal of Tiruparutti(kundru) (திருப்பருத்திக்குன்றக் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 372); Milalur kurattigal (மிழலூர்க் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 394); Kurattigal of Kudarkudi (குன்றக்குடிக் குரத்திகள்) (SII, Vol. V. No. 396). It is believed from the Jaina inscriptions in Kalugumalai and others that the Jain theology classes could be coeducational and that ocassionally nuns served as teachers. (SII Vol. III, No.92 and SII Vol. V, No. 308 - 407). Nuns were students of male monks:

1. Kurattigal (lady teachers) of Ilanechuram, disciples of Tirtha bhttara (SII, Vol. V. No. 369)
2. Kurattigal of Tiruparutti (kunru - Jina Kanchi), the lady disciples of Sri Pattini bhattara (SII, Vol. V. No. 372)

Male Students studied under Woman Teachers (nuns):

1. Enadi Kuttanan Satti, disciple of the Kurattigal (lady teacher) of Tirumalai (SII, Vol. V. No. 370) 

Women Students under Women Teachers

1. Nattigabhattarar, the (lady disciple) of Kurattigal (nun) of Nalkur (SII, Vol. V. No. 355)
2. Nalkur kurattigal, the (lady disciple) of Amalanemi bhattara (lady teachers) of Nalkur (SII, Vol. V. No. 356)
3. Arattan nemi kurattigal, the lady disciple of Mammiakurattigal (371)
4. Milalur Kurattigal, the lady disciple of Perurkurattigal who was the d/o Mingaikumaran of Pidangai in Karaikana nadu image (394)

The monastery was also frequented by common public from places like  Alattur (அலத்தூர்), Erahur Pereyirkudi (எலகூர் பெரெயிர்க்குடி), Ilavenbai (இளவெண்பை), Kalakkudi (கலக்குடி), Karaikkudi (காரைக்குடி), Kottaru (கோட்டர்), Kurandi (குறண்டை), Nalkurkudi (நல்கூர்குடி), Pidankudi (பிடங்குடி), Tiruchcharanam etc. 

Jainism condemned caste divisions and respected all humans as equals and the monks encouraged and practiced four forms of charity or dhana - 1.donating food to the needy (அன்னதானம்), 2. imparting education to all (கல்விதானம்), 3. providing medical assistance to the poor (மருத்துவ தானம்) and 4. affording refuge to the helpless (அஞ்சினான் புகலிடம்) - as their important duty. Owing to these, Jainism flourished in ancient Tamil Nadu and the monks brought the religion closer to the Tamil common public. The Tamil Jains influenced and forged the religion, politics, culture and society of the ancient Tamilagam.

Donating food for the needy:   An inscription at Kalugumalai monastery records the construction of a well and the gift of some land for providing some food to the ten  bhattarar expounding Siddhanta, and the Vairagiyar (monks) in the Tirumalai temple at Tirunechuram, by Siddhan of the village at Kadantaikudi, located in Nallur-tumbur kurram. The gift was entrusted with Gunasahara bhattara of Tirunechuram. Mentions some more names connected with the endowment. The Pandya king Varaguna II (Maran Sadaiyan), whose date of accession in 862 A.D. Date: 3rd regnal year (865 A.D.), is identified with  this endowment  (SII Vol V, No. 405).

Another inscription in the same site records some endowment to the deity known as Tirumalaidevar at Tirunechuram by Mahadevan, a resident of the village Perunavalur, located in Nallur - Milalai-kurram for feeding five Vairagiyar (monks - Jaina ascetics) and Bhatarar who expounded Siddanta (Jaina philosophy) to the laity in the temple. The endowment was entrusted to Gunasahara bhattarar of Tirunechuram, who was probably chief among the monks looking after Jaina establishments at Kalugumalai (SII Vol V, No. 406)

The Jain monastery became extinct after 13th century due to loss of Patronage after Pandya kings.


Reference (For Further Studies):

1. Champakalakshmi, R. Jainism in south India, Delhi, 1974
2. Desai, P.B. Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, Jainasamskriti Samrakshakasamgha, Sholapur 1957.  
3. Ekambaranathan, A. Jaina Iconography in Tamilnadu. ed. 1. Shri Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain (Teert Sanrakshini) Mahasabha, Lucknow.  2002
4. Ekambaranathan, A.  Jaina Temples of Southern Pandiyanadu.
5. Ekambaranathan, A. and C.K. Sivaprakasam, Jaina Inscriptions in Tamil Nadu: : A topographical list. Research Foundation for Jainology, Madras 1987. 464p.
   Jainism under early Pandyas. In Encyclopedia of Jainsim http://en.encyclopediaofjainism.com/index.php?title=03.JAINISM_UNDER_THE_EARLYPANDYAS
6. Ekambaranathan, A. Studies in Jainism (Tamil Nadu). Shree Sarita Jain Foundation, Chennai, 2011 
7. Ghosh, A. (Ed.): Jaina Arts and Architecture, New Delhi, 1974
8. Kazhugumalai deserves universal recognition.  The Hindu. August 8, 2012.
9. Lisa N Owen. Demarcating Sacred Space: The Jina Images at Kalugumalai
   Opulent sculptures - Epigraphist V.Vedachalam's forte is the tudy of Jaina sites. Frontline. Vol 25, issue 21. October 11-24, 2008. 
10. Ravishankar Thiagarajan. Jina Images of Kazhugumalai as seen by Lisa. Site Seminar Talk on 11 Jan 2015 at "Shrinidhi", 12/1 Reserve Bank Colony MG Road, Thiruvanmiyur, Madras 41.  
11. Sivaramamurti. C.  Kalugumalai and Early Pandyan Rock-cut Shrines
12. Sripal, tamizakattil jainam, T. S.  Madras, 1975
13. South Indian Inscriptions (SII), Vol.14. Archaeological Survey of India.
14. Tamil Jain by Mahima Jain The Hindu December 28, 2013 http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/tamil-jain/article5504164.ece
15. Tamil Jain Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Jain.
16. Vijayakumar.S. Engineering Marvel. The Hindu. June 14, 2013.

Dr. Lisa Nadine Owen
Assistant Professor of Art History, School of Visual Arts. University of North Texas

Demarcating Sacred Space: The Jina Images atKalugumalai (10 minutes on video)