Muziris (Muciri), A Sangam Era Port in Kerala: History Through the Ages

Muziris (Malayalam: മുച്ചിരി) or Muciri (Tamil, முசிறி)  also called various names from ancient times, Mahodayapuram (Malayalam: മാക്കോതയാപുരം) (Tamil: மகோதயபுரம்), Makotai (Malayalam: മകോതൈ) (Tamil: மகோதை), Muyirikode (Malayalam: മുയിർക്കോട്) (Tamil: முயிர்க்கோடு), was an ancient seaport and urban center on the West Coast. The Sea submerged the flourishing port town Muziris at the mouth of the river Periyar (Malayalam: പെരിയാര്) (Tamil: பேரியாறு), overlooking the Arabian sea, and at present the Muziris Heritage Site (MHS) straddles across the borders of Ernakulam (North Paravur municipality) and Thrissur districts (Kodungallur municipality) of central Kerala. The historic towns of Kodungallur (Malayalam കൊടുങ്ങല്ലൂര്) (Tamil: கொடுங்களூர்), Pattanam (Malayalam: പട്ടണം) (Tamil: பட்டணம்) and Paravur (Malayalam: പറവൂർ) (Tamil: பரவூர்), forming part of MHS, are located at the hinterland, the Periyar Basin. Cherai Beach, in the MHS project area, is a major tourist destination.

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Pattanam (Malayalam: പട്ടണം), is a small village situated in the Periyar river delta in Paravur taluk, Eranakulam district, Kerala state, India PIN 683 522. It is located 1 km from Vadakkekara, 5 km from north of Paravur, 9 km south of Kodungallur (Cranganore), 25 km north of Kochi (Cochin), 28 km towards north from district head quarters Kakkanad. and 236 km from State capital Thiruvananthapuram. Pattanam lies on the geographical coordinates of 10.15654°N and 76.208982°E and the elevation / altitude is 12 m above sea level.  Pattanam is currently identified by Prof. P.J. Cherian, Director of the Pattanam excavations as Muziris. Some scholars contradict this view. Ancient Tamil Sangam literature assigns it as Muciri.

Kodungallur (Malayalam കൊടുങ്ങല്ലൂര്) (anglicised name: Cranganore), a municipal town, is located in the south-west border of Thrissur district, Kerala, India PIN 680664. Kodungallur lies on the geographical coordinates of 10.233761°N and 76.194634°E and the elevation / altitude is 9 m above sea level. According to A Sreedhara Menon, the author of the title 'A Survey of Kerala History,' Kodungallur is the ancient Muziris. but no evidence of maritime or mercantile activity could be found there. About 5000 years ago Kodungallur and Paravur were part of the sea and the radiocarbon dating of peat samples prove this hypothesis. The temple at Kodungallur is conceived to have been built by Chera king Senguttuvan (சேரன் செங்குட்டுவன்), for Kannagi (கண்ணகி), heroine of Silappadikaram (சிலப்பதிகாரம்).  It is believed that Kannagi gained her ascension in Kodungallur and therefore she has been enshrined here.

Early Cheras (Samgam Period) 270 BC - 710 AD

Chera dynasty (சேர வம்சம்), an ancient Dravidian dynasty of Tamil descent, that ruled parts of the present-day states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The earliest stone inscription with a reference on "Kerala" is the "Edicts of Ashoka" (BC 274-237). Kerala is mentioned as "Keralaputho" (Malayalam: കേരളപുതോ) (Tamil: கேரளபுதோ) (Kerala Puthra meaning Cheraman) in the second and thirteenth Ashoka Sthambhas. Few Tamil Brahmi inscriptions mention some Sangam Era kings: Neduncheliyan in Mangulam inscription, Athiyaman in Jambai inscription, and Irumporai dynasty in Pugalur inscription. The inscription discovered in Aranattarmalai (Tamil: ஆறுநாட்டாமலை, புகலூர்), near Pugalur in Karur district, Tamil Nadu refers to three generations of Chera rulers Ko Adan Cel Irrumporai (Tamil: கோ ஆதன் செல் இரும்பொறை), his son Perumkadunkon (Tamil: பெருங்கடுங்கோன்), and his son Ilamkadungo (Tamil: இளங்கடுங்கோ):

‘மூதா அமண்ணன் யாற்றூர் செங்காயபன் உறைய்ய 

கோ ஆதன் செல்லிரும்பொறை மகன் 

பெருங்கடுங்கோன் மகன் இளங் 

கடுங்கோ இளங்கோ ஆக அறுத்த கல்’

(Aranattarmalai Inscription, near Pugalur in Karur district)

செல்வக்கடுங்கோ வாழியாதன் (Patirruppattu 7th set of Ten Poems பதிற்றுப்பத்து 7ஆம் பத்து),

பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை (Patirruppattu 8th set of Ten Poems பதிற்றுப்பத்து 8ஆம் பத்து), 

இளஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை (Patirruppattu 9th set of Ten Poems பதிற்றுப்பத்து 9ஆம் பத்து)

It also refers to ‘Pon Vaanigan,’ gold merchant from Karur (Tamil Nadu). The date assignable to the inscription (based on its paleography) to the first-second century A.D.

Cheras are referred to as Cherala (சேரல) and Cheraman (சேரமான்) in Sangam literature and it vaguely describes a long line of Chera rulers.  It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. However their dating is clearly absent and genealogy is lacking. The term "Kerala" never occurred in Sangam works.

Patirruppattu (பதிற்றுப்பத்து), also known as Pathirruppaththu (the ten sets of ten poems), is one of the works of the Eight Anthologies or books of the Ettuttokai (எட்டுத்தொகை). The anthology consists of one hundred verses.  The first and the last ten poems have been lost beyond recovery. The poems are composed by various Tamil Sangam poets. The poems glorify the affluence of ten kings of the Chera dynasty from Uthiyan Cheralathan (உதியன் சேரலாதன்) a.k.a "Perum Chorru Udiyan" (பெருஞ்சோற்று உதியன்) to Perunceral Irumporai (பெருஞ்சேரல் இரும்பொறை).

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Vanchi (வஞ்சி)

Vanchi (Tamil: வஞ்சி) also known as Vanchi Muthur (வஞ்சி மூதூர்) was the capital of Chera dynasty (சேரர் வம்சம்). Archaeological evidence attest that Vanchi lies in the outskirts of present day Kodungallur and some historians contradict this view. Few historians also recognize Vanchi as Karur (கரூர்) located on the banks of Amaravathi river, the ancient capital city of the Cheras, in present-day Karur district, Tamil Nadu state.

குடபுலங் காவலர் மருமா னொன்னார்

வடபுல விமயத்து வாங்குவிற் பொறித்த

எழுவுறழ் திணிதோ ளியறேர்க் குட்டுவண்

வருபுனல்வாயில் வஞ்சியும் வறிதே யதாஅன்று . . 

(Sirupanarruppatai சிறுபணாற்றுப்படை 47 - 50)

Sirupanarruppatai (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை), a Sangam anthology, speaks about Cheran Kuttuvan's (சேரன் குட்டுவன்) expedition to Himalayas and imprinting the Chera's royal emblem i.e., bow and arrow on the face of the Himalaya. It also describes about the Chera capital Vanchi.   

.'துஞ்சா முழவின் மூதூர் வாயில் '

(Pathirruppaththu பதிற்றுப்பத்து  236)

(Uniterrupted beat of the drum is heard in the entrance of the town)

In Silappadikaram (சிலப்பதிகாரம்), the Tamil epic composed by Ilango Adigal (இளங்கோ அடிகள்) in the 2nd century AD, a part is devoted on Vanchi town, the capital of Cheras and named as Vanchikandam (வஞ்சிக்காண்டம்), Vanchi Part or third part of the book.

‘ வஞ்சி மூதூர் மணிமண் டபத்திடை' (Amidst the temple mandapam of Vanchi Muthur town)  

(Silappadikaram Varantharu Kadhai 173-174)

மண்ணகம் நிழல் செய, 

மற வாள் ஏந்திய, 

நிலம் தரு திருவின் நெடியோன்-தனாது 

வலம் படு சிறப்பின் வஞ்சி மூதூர்

(Silappadikaram Nadukar Kadhai நடுகற்காதை 1 - 4)

முறைமையின் இந்த மூதூர் அகத்தே

அவ்வவர் சமயத்தறிபொருள் கேட்டு

மெய்வகை இன்மை நினக்கே விளங்கிய

பின்னர்ப் பெரியோன் பிடக நெறி கடவாய்

(Manimekalai Vanchi Manakar Pukka Kadhai (வஞ்சிமா நகர் புக்க காதை) 63 - 65)

·         Vanchi (Tinospora Cardifolia) (Tamil: சீந்தில் கொடி) is a kind plant found in India. Kapilar (கபிலர்), the author of Kurinjippattu (குறிஞ்சிப்பாட்டு), a sangam anthology, had mentioned 99 flowers found in the Kurunji region (Mountainous region). Vanchi flower is mentioned as the 79th flower in this list. The Tamil kings and chieftains wore different flowers in the battlefield to denote different heroic activities. While invading an enemy's territory the soldiers wore Vanchi' flowers and enter in to the territory for cattle raids.. 

P    Periyapuranam (பெரிய‌ புராண‌ம்) also known as Tirutontarpuranam, is the 13th century great purana or Tamil epic , depicts the legendary lives of 63 Saivite saints (Nayanmars). Kalarrarivar Nayanar Puranam (கழறிற்றறிவார் நாயனார்), (Puranam 47)  mentions Vanchi as Tiruvanchaikkalam (திருவஞ்சைக்களம்) and Kodungallur (கொடுங்களூர்). The epic also describes about the fort walls and gardens.

Muziris or Muciri (முசிறி)

Indian west coast had numerous ports when compared with Indian east coast. The reason for concentration of ports in west coast could be that they were easily approached by the traders of Roman empire. Muciri (முசிறி), an ancient port town, is popular among the port towns in the west coast (Chera country). Greeks or Yavanas called this port as Muziris. Muziris means cleft lip and the coastline resembles as the cleft lip from aerial view. Valmiki Ramayana mentions this port as 'Murasi (முரசி).' Like the internationally renowned Kaveripoompattinam in the east coast, Muciri was also far-famed for overseas trade in the west coast. 

மலைத் தாரமும் கடல் தாரமும்
தலைப் பெய்து, வருநர்க்கு ஈயும்
புனலங் கள்ளின் பொலந்தார்க் குட்டுவன்
முழங்கு கடல் முழவின் முசிறி யன்ன,
Purananuru புறநானுறு 343, 7-10

Poet Paranar describes natural wealth of Muciri in Purananuru Poem 343, 7-10: "With its streets, its houses, its covered fishing boats, where they sell fish, where they pile up rice-with the shifting and mingling crowd of a boisterous river-bank were the sacks of pepper are heaped up-with its gold deliveries, carried by the ocean-going ships and brought to the river bank by local boats, the city of the gold-collared Kuttuvan (Chera chief), the city that bestows wealth to its visitors indiscriminately, and the merchants of the mountains, and the merchants of the sea, the city where liquor abounds, yes, this Muciri, were the rumbling ocean roars, is give to me like a marvel, a treasure. ."

The Chera country (Kerala) often referred to as the "Spice Garden of India" or the land of spices and this spicy commodity have an effect upon socio - geopolitics of the world. Pepper also pushed the port town onto the center-stage. The Indo - Roman trade commence in first century BC following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt. The Romans sailed to India with 'amphorae of olive oil and wines, chests of gold and silver and their famed pottery.' They established trading settlements in Chera land. In the first century BC Muziris was one of India’s most important trading ports, whose exports – especially black pepper – kept even mighty Rome in debt. 

மீன் நொடுத்து நெல் குவைஇ

மிசை யம்பியின் மனைமறுக் குந்து!

மனைக் கவைஇய கறிமூ டையால்.

கலிச் சும்மைய கரைகலக் குறுந்து

கலந் தந்த பொற் பரிசம்

Purananuru புறநானுறு 343, 1-5 

During Sangam era most trade was by barter. Paddy was the most popular commodity and the well accepted medium of exchange. They also exchanged purified salt. honey and roots against fish liver oil and arrack. According to Purananuru, the boat sail on the river with loads of fish and would  return with paddy exchanged against fish. It seems that Muziris was a shallow port and hence the ships anchored far off from the shore. The  boats with loads of pepper bags would sail towards the anchored ships to exchange gold jewels brought through ships by overseas traders.

‘சுள்ளியம் பேர்யாற்று வெண்ணுரை கலங்க

யவனர் தந்த வினைமாண் நன்கலம் 

பொன்னொடு வந்து கறியொடு பெயரும் 

வளங்கெழு முசிறி

(Akananuru அகநானூறு, 149:9-11) 

Here lies the thriving town of Muciri, where “the beautiful vessels, the masterpieces of the Yavanas (Greeks), stir white foam on the Periyar, river of Kerala, arriving with gold and departing with pepper.” (Akananuru 149:9-11).

The Pandyan port city of Korkai was the center of the pearl trade. The coastal town Muciri was also popular for its pearls. The pearl fishery was popular occupation in Periyar river estuary. Chanakya (Kautilya) refers that Chaurneyam (Tamil: சூர்னியம்) (a kind of pearl specially found in Periyar or Churni river (Tamil: சூர்ணியாறு) was brought to North India in the 4th cent. BC. Periyar river was known as `Churni river' in Sangham poetry. According Pathirruparru, the pearls of Muciri were sold in a port known as Bandhar (பந்தர்) and rare gold jewels were sold in another port called Kodumanam (கொடுமணம்). Bandhar is an Arabic term which means market place. The term stands as evidence for Arab trade links in Muciri.

இன்னிசைப் புணரி இரங்கும் பௌவத்து

நன்கல வெறுக்கை துஞ்சும் பந்தர்க்

கமழுந தாழைக் கானலம் பெருந்துறை

(Pathirruppaththu பதிற்றுப்பத்து  6th set of 10, 5th Poem)

Ships anchored at the port Bandhar

‘கொடுமணம் பட்ட வினைமான் அருங்கலம்
பந்தர்ப் பயந்த பலர்புகழ் முத்தம்’

(Pathirruppaththu பதிற்றுப்பத்து  8th set of 10, 4th Poem Line 5-6)

At Bandhar ornate ships brought far-famed pearls from Kodumanam

Foreign Records on Muziris

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

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Hippalus, a Yavana (Greek) navigator and overseas trader, is believed to be the captain of the Greek explorer Eudoxus of Cyzicus' ship. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei) also known as the Periplus of the Red Sea, is an unknown Greek periplus (merchant - mariner's handbook) devoted to new fields of geographical discovery and commercial achievement. The text describes about the navigation from Egyptian and Roman ports along the Red sea coast and others along Northeast Africa and the Sindh and South western India. The date assignable to Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is mid first century AD. This text gives credit to Hippalus for discovering the direct route from the Red Sea to India over the Indian Ocean. Hippalus seems to have plotted the scheme of the sea and arrived the correct the location of the trade ports along the west coast. In short Hippalus is credited for discovering the monsoon wind which is also named as Hippalus (the south-west monsoon wind).. The use of Hippalus' direct route helped the Greco-Roman ships in frequenting to Muziris port from the 1st century BC on wards. Muziris served as the pre-historic gateway to India. The ships sailed with loads of coral, copper, tin, lead and mirror and returned with Indian spices, silk, cotton, pearls, glass and stone beads. Pepper was preferred as the favorite commodity in Rome and hence known as 'Yavanapriya' (Tamil: யவனப் பிரியா).

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Kerala as "Cerobothra" and also provides an account on this ancient port: ”Muziris "abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea 500 stadia, and up the river from the shore 20 stadia"... "There is exported pepper, which is produced in only one region near these markets, a district called Cottonara."

The handbook refer "Musiri, a city at the height of prosperity, was two miles distance from the mouth of the river on which it is situated and was the seat of the Government of the Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras." It also bring out how this coastal town became the key trade port for the Chera land. The merchant ships frequented from Roman empire as well as northern India and the settlement of the overseas traders in Muziris showed keen interest in promoting foreign trade. The warehouses stacked black pepper brought from Chera hinterland and awaited for the export opportunities through Roman traders. The shallow waters of Muziris port disallowed foreign vessels with deep hull from sailing upstream to the port. The overseas freighters were constrained to stay at the border of the lagoon. Therefore their consignments were shifted upstream on light boats.

Pliny the Elder's Natural History

Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, published Naturalis Historia (Natural History), a comprehensive work in Latin, It is encyclopedic in scope and considered as the unique voluminous treatise survived from the Roman empire to the modern world  It intents to disseminate all ancient knowledge to the modern world.  According to Pliny's Natural History, Muziris is described as “the first emporium of India”, “not to be sought because of pirates nearby." and "the station for ships is at a distance from the shore and cargoes have to be landed and shipped by means of little boats. There reigned there, when I wrote this, Coelobothros". Pliny calls Kerala as "Caelobothras."

Papyrus Vindobonensis or Muziris papyrus 

Papyrus Vindobonensis G 40822, widely known as the “Muziris papyrus,” is the most significant pieces of evidence concerned with Indo-Roman trade. This second century AD Greek papyrus contract document involves an Alexandrian trader, importer and financier. The papyrus document records particulars about the cargo consignment worth around nine million sesterces was imported from Muziris, on board a Roman merchant vessel named as Hermapollan. This document enabled the economists and lawyers to analyse international trade and overseas trade laws in depth. 

Muziris, as shown in the 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana

Peutinger Map (Tabula Peutingeriana)
Peutinger Map (Tabula Peutingeriana) is an odd sized medieval copy of an ancient road map. The map dates back to second century AD. In this map Muziris and Tondi ports are well indicated. The map also shows a large lake behind Muziris. It also marks the presence of Temple Augustus (Templ(um) Augusti).

Muziris Devasted by Cataclysmic Event 

It is assumed that Muciri and its famous port were devastated by cataclysmic event (கடல் கோள்) in 1341 and consequently lost its commercial importance thereafter.. The apocalyptic calamities may be due to Tsunami, sea incursions, erosion and flood in Periyar river. As a result the geography of the region was altered. According to Dick Whittakker and Rajan Gurukkal, who made a study and published a document titled "In Search of Muziris," the cataclysmic event geographically altered the access to Periyar river. It not only formed Vembanad back water system but also opened up the Kochi (Cochin) harbour. The regional geological survey of the region reveals that before 200 - 300 years the shoreline was laid about 3 km east to the present coast. It could have moved even further east say about 6.5 km before 2000 years. At present Muciri region is identified and earmarked as Muziris Heritage Site (MHS) and historic towns of Kodungallur, Pattanam and North Paravur forming part of MHS.

Muziris Archaeological Excavations

1945: Series of excavations undertaken at Kodungallur since from 1945. The teams could recover only antiquities of the 13th century or afterwards.
1969 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out an excavation in 1969 at Ceraman Parambu, 2 km north of Kodungallur. Only antiquities of the 13th and 16th century were recovered.
1983: A huge hoard of Roman coins was discovered at a site around six miles from Pattanam.
2007 - 2014: A series of pioneering excavations carried out by Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR, an autonomous institution) at Pattanam since from 2007

Pattanam Excavations 2007 - 2015

For the first time multi-disciplinary archaeological excavation was carried out by KCHR (with the approval of ASI) from 18th February to 8th April 2007 (first phase) in the historic village Pattanam. The site at Pattanam covers approximately 1.5 sq. km and the core area measures about 600 x 400 m. KCHR team carried out nine excavations (2007 - 2015) and unearthed130,865 artefacts, circa 5,16,676 diagnostic potsherds, 141, 348 non-Indian pottery sherds and circa 4.5 million local body sherds. It includes Mediterranean amphora, terra sigillata sherds, Roman glass fragments and gaming counters (dated 100 BC - 400 AD); turquoise glazed pottery, torpedo jar fragments and frankincense crumbs of West Asian, South Arabian Mesopotamian origin (dated 300 BC - 1000 AD); Chinese blue on white porcelain sherds (dated 1600 AD - 1900 AD); Local black and red ware sherds, Indian rouletted ware, gemstones, glass beads, semi precious stone beads / inlays / intaglio, cameo–blanks, coins, spices, pottery terracotta objects and human bones. They have also identified iron, copper, gold and lead objects as well as crucible slag, furnace installations, lapidary remains of semi-precious stones and spindle whorls suggesting industrial character of the settlement. Two important objects i.e., the semi precious stone carved with the figure of a pouncing lion and the micro metal object with intricate designs, were retrieved during ongoing excavations. The haul also includes 112 early coins including 3 lead coins of the Chera kingdom.

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Unearthing Jar PC Justkerala.in

PC Frontline

Pottery Feagments PC Muziris Heritage

Wharf complex Structure PC Frontline

The team is surprised with the discovery of burnt bricks and roof-tiles. The remains of ancient brick wall, a brick platform,   a ring well, storage jars, toilet features, lamps, stylus and scripts on pottery suggests about the existence of a prominent urban settlement and the date assigned between 100 BC and 400 AD. They have taken note of a wharf with bollards and a six meter long wooden canoe lying parallel to the wharf, about 2.5 meter below ground level. 

The Institute of Physics, Bhubaneshwar carried out carbon dating and concluded that Pattanam habitation goes back to the first millennium BC. It is believed that this place was under continuous occupation from second century BC to tenth century AD. The Indo - Roman trade at Pattanam was in its peak since from first century BC.

According to Prof. PJ, Cherian, Director of the Pattanam excavations, “The discovery, in the Kerala context, has a great significance because of the dearth of evidence so far of the pre-Brahminical past of Kerala, especially in relation to the socio-cultural and religious life of the people. The KCHR team has unearthed (at a two meter depth) the Tamil Brahmi script on a pot rim, reading "a ma na" (Amana meaning a Jaina). This ancient Tamil Brahmi script with two symbols deciphered as Megalithic graffiti serves as the evident for the prevalence of Jainism on the Malabar coast at least from 2nd century AD. 

The Hindu march 14, 2011

Oxford Univ. Archaeologists @ Pattanam Excavation site PC Thulasi Kakkar

Another pot-sherd with the Tamil-Brahmi letters reading “ur pa ve o” was deciphered by Dr. V. Selvakumar (Tamil University, Thanjavur) and Dr. K.P. Shajan (Geo-archaeologist, KCHR), the Co – Directors. Yet another another Tamil-Brahmi script with the letters “ca ta [n]” was also recovered. The exact spot of Pattanam is not clearly identified. Dr.K.P.Shajan. Shajan maintains that Periyar river had changed its course over the centuries and believes that the ancient port might have been at Pattanam. Discovery of broken pottery and ancient fired bricks during excavation suggests him the changes in the course of the river over the centuries. However historians like R Nagaswamy, KN Panikkar and MGS Narayanan have disagreed with the identification of Pattanam as Muziris and called for further research. KCHR chief maintains, "whether Pattanam was Muziris is not of immediate concern to us,"

According to Dr. Wendy Morrison of the Oxford University, the trade links of Southern India with Rome in the early Iron Age is reminiscent of the Roman invasion of England around the same period, She linked with the excavations by Oxford research team at Dorchester Village. England have come out with interesting finds on the country’s cultural and trade links with Rome. Pattanam excavations and the unearthed archaeological treasures have revolutionized the cultural history of Kerala

The Kerala State government sensed the tourism potential of the Pattanam discovery and established the Muziris Heritage Project (MHP) and the budget allocated for the first phase of the project was Rs.1,400 million. MHP envisages preservation of monuments and intends to restore old bazaars, roads, bridges, canals etc., spread across two municipal towns and 6 panchayats. The Government also sent proposal to UNESCO for declaring Muziris a world heritage site.

Reference

1. Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade. Mathew KS. Rouledge. 25 Nove 2015. 472p.
2. Introducing the Muziris Papyrus. Maddy. Historic Alleys (http://historicalleys.blogspot.in/2010/06/introducing-muziris-papyrus.html)
3. Ivory from Muziris* Federico De Romanis (http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/8/)
4. Lost cities #3 – Muziris: did black pepper cause the demise of India's ancient port? The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/aug/10/lost-cities-3-muziris-india-kerala-ancient-port-black-pepper)
5. More evidence unearthed at ancient port of Muziris by A. Srivathsan. The Hindu. November 15, 2016
6. Muziris Wikipedia
7. Muziris, at last? Krishnakumar R. Frontline. Volume 27, Issue 08, April 10-23, 2010
8. Pattanam: A Rupture in the Cultural History of Kerala. Ajaysekhar Margins. May 7th, 2011. (http://ajaysekher.net/2011/05/07/pattanam-muziris-excavations-pasts-kerala/)
9. ‘Pattanam and Dorchester shared similar links with Rome’ The Hindu April 21, 2010 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/pattanam-and-dorchester-shared-similar-links-with-rome/article5933114.ece)
10. Pattanam Archaeological Research. Kerala Council of Historical research.(http://kchr.ac.in/articles/87/Pattanam-Archaeological-Research.html)
11. Pattanam One Five Nine (http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/Ernakulam/Paravur/Pattanam)
12. Pattanam Wikipedia
13. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea - Wikipedia
14. Political History of Modern Kerala. A. Sreedhara Menon.  D C Books. 1987.p. 22.
15. Sangam Port: Muchiri in Kerala. Devapriya. Wordpress. March 19, 2010.
16. Tamil-Brahmi script found at Pattanam in Kerala by TS.Subramaniyan. The Hindu March 14, 2011 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Tamil-Brahmi-script-found-at-Pattanam-in-Kerala/article14947188.ece)
17. The Ancient Roman Connections with Tamil Nadu. (https://docs.google.com/document/d/1EnoLAy1bKEITHsrWkSBMsJZEQL9nx32drsNUZ_7r5Bk/edit)
18. The Chera Coins (Tamil Coins - A Study; R. Nagaswamy). Tamil Arts Academy (http://tamilartsacademy.com/books/coins/chapter01.xml)
19. What is the history of the Indian city of Muziris? Yahoo Answers.  (https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120210135734AA3geeZ)
20. பண்டைத் தமிழகம் வணிகம் - நகரங்கள் மற்றும் பண்பாடு  மயிலை சீனி. வேங்கடசாமி ஆய்வுக் களஞ்சியம் - 4 நியூ செஞ்சுரி புக் ஹவுஸ் பிரவேட் லிமிடெட். பக்கம் 97 - 100 (http://www.tamilvu.org/slet/ln00101/ln00101pag.jsp?bookid
21. வஞ்சி, முசிறி இருப்பிடம். தமிழ்த்துளி October 13, 2014 (http://vaiyan.blogspot.in/2014/10/blog-post.html)

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Kaveripoompattinam (Poompuhar): History Through the Ages

Poompuhar Art Gallery - Wikipedia

Poompuhar Beach - Wikipedia

Kaveripoompattinam (காவிரிப்பூம்பட்டிணம்), also called various names from ancient times, Champathy (சம்பாதி) (as cited in Manimekalai (மணிமேகலை), Cholapattanam (சோழபட்டணம்), Kaveripattinam (காவேரிப்பட்டிணம்), Poompuhar (Pumpuhar) (பூம்புகார்), Puhar (புகார்),  is  the flourishing Sangam era international port town and estuary, located in Sirkali taluk (சீர்காழி வட்டம்), Nagapattinam district (நாகப்பட்டிணம் மாவட்டம்), Tamil Nadu, India PIN 609105. Puhar in Tamil means the ‘estuary’ i.e., place where Cauvery river (காவிரி ஆறு) enter into Bay of Bengal.  This ancient coastline town served as the capital of early Chola rulers including Karikala Chola (கரிகால சோழன்), Sembian (செம்பியன்), Manu needhi Cholan (மனுநீதி சோழன்). Around 2nd century BC the the ships from Tamralipati (West Bengal), Palur (Orissa) anchored in the celebrated Kaveripoompattinam port before they sailed to Rome, Arabia and other Asian ports. The coastline town is .located 56 km towards North from district head quarters Nagapattinam and the near by cities are Karaikal (36 km), Mayiladuthurai (24 km), Parangipettai (24 km), Sirkali (21 km) and Tarangambadi (24 km).and 249 km from State capital Chennai The place is located in the border of the Nagapattinam district and Cuddalore district.  Kaveripoompattinam, an archaeologist delight,  lies on the geographical coordinates of 11.144°N and 79.855°E and the elevation / altitude is 6 m above sea level.

The coastline town is also famous for its great beach with calm surf from where you can witness the river Cauvery with its fresh water meeting the Bay of Bengal and the estuary is adjacent to the beach..If you have a passion for anything Sangam Tamil literature, history, Social life, Buddhism, fine arts, music, dance, drama, shipping, foreign trade and commerce, archaeological excavation, underwater archeology — you will find it here. 

Poompuhar Beach is an ideal picnic spot. Silappadikaram Art Gallery is major tourist attraction and it is a classically built seven tiered architecture highlighting the history of the place, Underwater Archaeological Site Museum, an exclusive museum, was founded to showcase the antiquities recovered from under water exploration. It is the unique Museum in India. There are a number of temples located around Poompuhar. These include: Thiruppallavaneeswaram (near Poompuhar beach), Melapperumpallam and Keezhapperumpallam, Thirusaikkadu (Sayavanam)  Chola temple with inscriptions.  The coastline town is for those who like to wander amidst history and take a stroll through time. Indian tourism department provides shell shaped cottages for the tourists at a moderate tariff. 

Glory of Chola Kings in Ancient Tamil Literary Works

Ancient Tamil Sangam literature such as Ahananuru (அகநானுறு), Purananuru (புறநானுறு), and Pattinappalai (பட்டினப்பாலை), and epics like Silappadikaram and Manimekalai (மணிமேகலை) details about this celebrated town. Musukunda Chakravarthy (முசுகுந்த சக்ரவர்த்தி), a mythological Chola king believed to have ruled Chola kingdom from Karur city. According to the legend Lord Indra sent a ghost (bhootha) to serve Musukunda Chakravarthy. The ghost served the king in the market place of Poompuhar town. The ghost would punish the citizens, if they fail to celebrate the Indra vizha (festival of Indra). "Thoongeyil Erinda Toditol" Sembian was a mythological Chola king who destroyed the fortress. 

தூங்கெயில் எறிந்த தொடிதோள் செம்பியன் (புறநானுறு Puranauru 39)

தூங்கு எயில் எறிந்த தொடி விளங்கு தடக்கை

நாடா நல்லிசை நற்றேர்ச் செம்பியன் (சிறுபாணாற்றுப்படை Cirupanarruppadai  74 - 75)

 'பலர்புகழ் மூதார்ப் பண்புமேம் படீஇய

 ஓங்குயர் மலயத் தருந்தவ அரைப்பத் 

அாங்கெயி லெறிந்த தொடித்தோட் செம்பியன் ' (மணிமேகலை. Manimekalai 1) 

He is considered as one of the early Chola kings during Sangam period. He was instrumental in celebrating the Indra vizha in Kaveripoompattinam. There are numerous mentions about Karikala Chola (190 AD) in Tamil Sangam poetry. 

நளியிரு முன்னீர் நாவாய் ஒட்டி 

வளிதொழில் கண்ட உரவோன் மருக!

களிஇயல் யானை கரிகால் வளவ!

(புறநானுறு Puranauru 68)

பெருவளக் கரிகால் (அகநானூறு Ahananuru, 125: 18)

பெருவளக்  கரிகால்  முன்னிலைச் செல்லார்  (அகநானூறு Ahananuru 125)

கரிகால் வளவனொடு வெண்ணிப் பறந்தலைப் 

பொருது புண் நாணிய சேரலாதன் (அகநானூறு, Ahananuru 55: 10-11)

உருவப் பஃறேர் இளையோன் சிறுவன்

தாய்வயிற் றிருந்து தாயம் எய்தி (பொருநராற்றுப்படை Porunarruppadai: 130,132)

‘விண்பொரு பெரும்புகழ் கரிகால் வளவன் (சிலப்பதிகாரம். காதை Silappadikaram Kadhai 6, 160)

The port town might have been enlarged during reign of king Karikala Chola. The Mahavamsa states that Ellalan (205 - 161 BC), a member of the Chola dynasty, ruled 'with even justice toward friend and foe, on occasions of disputes at law and got the title Manu Needhi Cholan (The Chola who follow Manu law).  Thiruvalangadu copper plate traces the history of Chola race. Mentions about the Justice rendered by the king to the Cow.

Buddhist Connection

Buddhism spread to South India during Emperor Ashoka's reign. Arahat Mahinda (Mahendra) lead a group of Buddhist monks to Sri Lanks in 250 BC to spread Buddhism. Mahendra seems to have traveled by sea and on his way he stayed temporarily in Kaveripattinam. It is evident that seven Buddhist Viharas were erected at Kaveripattinam, by about 400 AD. Manimekalai refers Indra Viharam Ezhu which means seven viharas built by Indra. The Tamil Sangam works, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai attribute to Indra. Buddhist claim that the name Indra could be the contraction of Mahendra. 

Buddhadatta Thera, a 5th century AD Theravada Buddhist scholar who hailed from Uragpura (modern Uraiyur, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu), went to Sri Lanka to study Buddhism in Mahavihara temple. This temple is believed to be the main seat of the ancestral branch for present day Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka founded by King Devananpiya Tissa..The monk also studied and translated the commentaries on the Buddha's teachings from Sinhalese to Pali. Buddhadatta Thera is said to have written most of his works in Kaveripattinam at the instance of the Buddhist acaryas Sumati, Buddhasika and Sanghapala. Buddhadatta's patron was the Chola king, Kalaber Accutavikkanta,

Bhadantacariya Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator and scholar. The monk also  translated a large body of Sinhala commentaries on the Pāli including Mahavamsa, a Sri Lankan chronicle, Buddhaghosuppatti, a later biographical work and Visuddhimagga. According to 'Chulavamsa', Buddhadatta and Buddhaghosa are certainly represented as contemporaries. Ghadhavansa, a Buddhist treatise mentions about  ten famous Buddhist teachers in south of India, including Buddhadatta. Buddhadatta regards the Chola kingdom with respect and associate his literary activity with the reign of Accutavikkanata or Accutavikkama of the Kalabbha or Kalamba [kadamba] dynasty.  

The Prakrit texts Abhidhammavatara and Buddhavamasattakatha written at Kveripattinam, by about 400 AD. attest to the flourishing nature of the port town, Milaidapana and Buddha Jataka also provide evidence for the prospering Chola port. According to Buddhist Jataka, one Akitti is said to have lived in a garden near Kaveripattinam. 

Foreigners' Notes on Kaveripattinam

Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, composed during the time of Domitian (81 – 96 AD), has provided brief information on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce. About half a century later Ptolemy, the renowned geographer brought out more information about Chola kingdom, its capital, ports and commerce.

Inscription

The earliest reference to Kaveripoompattinam is noticed in a Prakrit inscription of 2nd century BC found at Bharhut in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, India. The Bharhut stupa is believed to have been first built by the Maurya emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC, However many works of art were apparently added during the Shunga period. The Bharhut inscriptions are viewed with the considerable significance because they trace the history of early Indian Buddhism and Buddhist art. 

The inscription refers to the gift of a stone slab for an enclosure of a stupa by a Buddhist nun called Soma, who hailed from the city Kakandi Kakandi according to Manimekalai was one of the names of Kaveripattinam. The gift of slab by the Buddhist nun Soma of Kakandi, as early as 2nd century BC, shows that Kaveripattinam was a flourishing town and that it served as an important Buddhist centre till at least 8th century AD. 

kakandiya somaya bichuniya danam (காகந்தியா சோமாய பிச்சுனியா தானம் ) (Corpus Inscriptorum Indicarum Vol. II Part II)

Ascendance of Pallava Dynasty

Pallavas slowly extended their power to the south and Kaveripattinam was included in the Pallava territory. The temple Pallavanisvaram should have been built sometime in the beginning of 6th century AD. by a Pallava monarch, whose name is not known. In the reign of Rakasimha a Buddha vihara is said to have been erected at Nagapattinam.

Excavations at Poompuhar


In Indic mythology, Manimekala is a goddess regarded as a guardian of the seas. The epic Manimekalai vividly describes the Kaveripoompattinam. Indra Vizha (Annual Indra Festival) was a very popular festival in ancient Tamil Nadu according to twin Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai. If Indra Vizha is not celebrated, goddess Manimekala would cause the wrath and the Town of Kaveripattinam would be swallowed up by the sea.

“தீவகச் சாந்தி செய்யா நாள்உன்

காவல் மாநகர் கடல்வயிறு புகூஉம்” (மணிமேகலை: 24:62-63)

According to Manimekalai, the Chola king had lost his son. In a grip of grief the Chola king forgot to celebrate the Indra Vizha (Annual Indra Festival). Hence Kaveripattinam was swallowed up by the sea (destroyed by kadalkol - "swallowed by the sea.")

“மணிமேகலா தெய்வம் மற்றது பொறாஅல்

அணிநகர் தன்னை அலைகடல் கொள்கென

விட்டனள் சாபம் பட்டதிதுவால்

கடவுள் மாநகர் கடல்கொள” (மணிமேகலை 25:198-201)

Literary works and archaeological evidence suggest repeated Tsunami, sea incursions, erosion and floods in Kaveripattinam. The Sea submerged the original city and at present there is only a small village. Thirusaikadu or Sayavanam, Pallavanisvaram, Melapperumpallam, Keelaperumpallam, Keezaiyur and Vanagiri are the remains of ancient Poompuhar that exist today.

Under water Excavation PC Tamizharsenai

11000 Years Old U Shaped Structure Graham Hancock

Under-water Excavations in Poompuhar.

Under-sea Exploration was conducted by the State Department of Archeology in collaboration with the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, India during 1990 - 94 and 1997. The under sea archaeological explorations around Poompuhar throws light on the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures and lead ingots. 

The team also discovered storage jars in the inter tidal zone and brick structures, stone structures, pottery from offshore explorations. Few references also suggest the shift of shoreline at Poompuhar and Tranquebar and that could be one of the reasons of its submergence.  Under-sea Exploration resulted in a site museum.

Graham Hancock, a British marine archaeologist and author was involved in examining a submerged city on the East Coast of Tamil Nadu. According to Hancock, the civilization thriving in Poompuhar may predate the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and could certainly  existed before the Harappan civilization in India and Pakistan. He also added that his underwater explorations conducted in 2001 provided strong evidence that corroborated Tamil mythological stories of ancient floods. He also ascertained that the tidal waves of 400 feet or more could have swallowed this flourishing port city any time between 17,000 and 7,000 years ago. His conclusion is that "the Poompuhar underwater site could well provide evidence that it was the cradle of modern civilization."  Theory of this British marine archaeologist strengthened the findings of India's National Institute of Oceanography (NIO). The U-shaped structure gleaned during the joint SES/NIO (Hancock ) expedition is shown below.

Marine Archaeological Museum. State Department of Archeology Tamil Nadu

Off-shore explorations were carried out near Champapathi Amman and Pallavanisvaram temples, Poompuhar right from 1910.  During the excavations remains of the various buildings were found:

Wharf Unearthed near Poompuhar. PC TN State Arch

Excavated Site with Exposed Structure & Ring well @ Poompuhar PC Indianetzone

Terracota Marine Archaeological Museum PC Dept TN State Arch 

The site of Buddha Vihara (brick structure) dated 4th - 5th century AD. at Pallavanisvaram, near Kaveripoompattinam, was excavated by the ASI and it is established that the ruins formed part of Kaveripoompattinam. The ancient Buddha vihara was built with burnt bricks (of different dimensions) and they have used mud mortar as the binding material. For the basement they used bricks with 36.25 x 18.75 x 7.5 cm size bricks and for superstructure they have used 23.75 x 12,5 x 5 cm size bricks. ASI also discovered a Buddha statue, and Buddhapada (dimension: 3 1/2' x 2 1/2' ) or the feet of Lord Buddha in limestone at this site.

Buddha Monastery. Pallavanesvram PC Panoramio

Buddha Monastery. Pallavanesvram PC Sharon St Joan

Buddha Feet

Manigramam is a village in Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu. It is located 5 km from Poompuhar. Famous Thirumani Azhagar temple is located in this village. Tamil Nadu Department of Archeology team excavated in 95 two intact portions of a brick wall as well as the collapsed structure dating between 3rd century B.C. and 2nd century AD.

Two brick walls running Northeast-Southwest at a depth of 20 cm was discovered in Kilayur (Kizharveli). They have also used mud mortar as the binding material. The structure is considered to have served as a wharf in the 4th century AD. ASI has observed four wooden poles - two palmyra tree trunks and two Iluppai (Bassia Longifolia) tree trunks - were used for this wharf.

A wharf belonging to the 3rd century BC was excavated at Poompuhar in 1962-63 and a similar wharf was unearthed in the subsequent excavation during 1997. Several kinds of brick figures and copper coins were also found.

City Layout

The structure of Poompuhar town can be traced from the fifth chapter of the Silappadikaram, Pattinappalai. Manimekalai also describes the same. Pattinappalai is one of the poem in the Sangam anthology of longer poems, the Ten Idylls (Patthupattu). Poet Katiyalur Uruttiran Kannanar vividly captures the glories and splendour of Kaveripoompattinam and its king Tirumavalavan a.k.a Karikala Cholan. The poem is categorized into three segments. Segment one, comprising 218 lines, details the fertility, prosperity and affluence of the great town Poompuhar. The segment also provides an account of the perennial flow of water in the holy river Cauvery in Chola kingdom, bewildering wealth, the layout of the city, the harbor, the custom-house,  and the life of various people belonging different occupations. The second segment is about the life and achievements of the king Tirumavalavan. The third segment deals with poetic theme pertaining to 'Palai'

The five Manrams - Vellidai Manram, Elanchi Manram, Nedankal mandram, Bootha-chathukkam and Pavaimanram were located in Pattinappakkam. Gardens like Elavanthikaicholai, Uyyavanam, Champathivanam, and Kaveravanam added beauty to the town.

Symbolical Monuments Reproduced 

In 1973 Kalaingar Dr.M.Karunanithi the Honoruable Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu gave crystal form to the lost town,by reproducing it on the basis of literary evidences. Several Symbolical monuments were raised. Sillappadikaram-Art gallery, Elanchi Mandram, Pavai Mandram, Nedungal Mandram and Kotrappandal found their existence and remain today, to attract visitors, with their artistic splendor.

Temples

During excavations, temples for  Lord Shiva, and Chathukka Bootham, the last of the deities were found in the city. There are temples for Shiva, Indra, his elephant Iravatham, and his Vajrayutham, Balaraman, Suriyan, Machatham, Chandran, Arugan and Thirumal. Buddha stupas or pillars and seven Buddha viharas were also found. Apart from these, a temple for Champapathi Amman, brick idols, and Ulaga Aravi Manram existed in Poompuhar.

'Maya school of Town Planning and Architecture.'

Silappadikaram elaborates the town planning of Kaveripoompattinam including its avenues, streets, mansions, residences of foreign merchants groves, gardens, market places, petty traders and workshops, It was an excellent example of town planning during 100 BC with well laid streets occupied by Yavana sailors and overseas traders, weavers, silk traders, grain merchants, jewelers and precision gems makers and petty traders, According Pattinappalai, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, the town planning followed the 'Maya school of Town Planning and Architecture.'

Two Broad Divisions

From the description of these ancient Tamil literature Kaveripoompattinam was laid out on the north banks of the river Cauvery and was divided into two broad divisions i.e.,  Maruvurpakkam near the sea-shore and Pattiinappakkam to its west. A market place was located, under shady trees, in between the two divisions. The day market was known as 'Nalangadi' and the night market was named as "Allangadi.'  Pakkam means a place adjacent to the sea-shore or hillock. Here pakkam signifies the place by the side of the sea-shore. Greeks (Yavanars) and other merchants from foreign countries resided in the outskirts of Maruvurpakkam and carried their business.

பயன றவறியா யவன ரிருக்கை 

(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 10)

நீரின் வந்த நிமிர்பரிப் புரவியும் காலின் வந்த கருங்கறி மூடையும் வடமலைப் பிறந்த மணியும் பொன்னும் குடமலைப் பிறந்த ஆரமும் அகிலும் தென்கடல் முத்துங் குணகடல் துகிரும் (Pattinappalai 1. 185 - 189)

At the limits of this prosperous town The majestic horses arrive by land. From the northern range comes gems and gold; Akil and sandal from western ghats, And pearls from the southern seas are heaped, And corals from eastern waves;

Maruvurpakkam was populated by the fishermen. The settlements of foreign (Yavanar) merchants had terraced mansions, granaries and warehouses with windows shaped like the eyes of the deer and they have chosen to live closer to the sea-coast and to the ship-yard. Their presence nearer to the ship-yard enabled the Chola Customs Officials to collect duties from them and to affix the Customs Seal (Tiger Mark) on the imported goods. The Customs Officials will not permit the removal of the imported goods from the dockyard until they remit the appropriate Customs Duty. 

நீரினின்று நிலத்தேறவு,  நிலத்தினின்று நீர்ப்பரப்பவு,  மலந்தறியாப் பலபண்டம்,  வரம்பறியாமை வந்தீண்டி,  யருங்கடிப் பெருங்காப்பின்,  வலியுடை வல்லணங்கினோன்,  புலிபொறித்துப் புறம்போக்கி, (Patiinappalai 1. 129 - 136)

On mountain slopes, that flows down plains And rushes to merge with surging waves, The countless cargoes from the land Are shifted to the ships in the sea; And loads and loads of cargoes there, Quite varied beyond conceptual mind Are moved to the land from the anchored ships And piled up there in heaps and heaps. In the custom-house that's to enter hard, The ensign, a terror to thieves around Stamp the royal Chola's sign  Of tiger on every piece before  It crosses the line of custom-house.

The streets next to the quarters occupied by the Yavanars or the foreign merchants were occupied by wandering pedlar selling colored pastes, unguents, fragrant sandal, flowers, eaglewood and perfumes. Weavers who worked on silk, fur and cotton thread resided in adjacent streets.  Heaps of silks, corals, sandal, eaglewood, flawless pears, gems, gold and other precious articles were sold in broad streets. Grain markets ,adjacent to broad street, sold different kinds of grains and pulses exhibited in separate heaps. 

வளந்தலை மயங்கிய நனந்தலை மறுகும்

(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 21)

Piffling traders, in an open street, sold baked sweet flour and fried flour-cakes; women sold toddy; various other traders include salt merchants, betel-leaf sellers, goat traders and oil merchants. There was also a meat market. Another adjacent street was full of bronze-smiths, copper-smiths, carpenters, strong armed black-smiths, gold-smiths who melt gold and those who make ornaments out of gold, Another part of the street occupied by tailors who stitch covers made of leather and different categories of skilled craftsmen produced handicrafts from cloth and pith. Another street inhabited by musicians with the ability to compose seven notes beginning with kural on wind instruments like flute and the stringed instruments like yazh. Also there were dwelling places of petty workers who earn their livelihood by serving others. Maruvurpakkam is the town populated by all these people. 

சிறுகுறுங் கைவினைப் பிறர்வினை யாளரொடு

மறுவின்றி விளங்கும் மருவூர்ப் பாக்கமும

(Silappadikaram Indra Vizhavu Ur Edutha Kadhai 38-39)

Pattinappakkam

The palace of the king is located in Pattinappakkam (பட்டினப்பாக்கம்) and the King's (Raja) street was the main highway here (கோவியன் வீதியும், கொடித்தேர் வீதியும்). A few stalls in a bazaar street near the palace sold the ordinary necessities. The leading merchants, the pious brahmins, thrifty farmers, the ayurvedic physicians and the astrologers (ஆயுள் வேதரும் காலக் கணிதரும்) dwell in independent streets in different types of houses appropriate to each class of people, the various designs presenting by contrast a picturesque sight.

People who made bangles and rings out of conch-shells, and pearl bead sellers lived in parallel streets on the western side of the palace. The king's retinue and courtiers lived in broad streets within reach of the palace. The Sootars (சூதர்) or those who stand and praise, the Makadars (மாகதர்) or those who sit and praise, the time reckoners (நாழிகைக் கணக்கர்), and the dancers (santhi-koothar) lived in various streets near the palace. 

சூதர் மாகதர் வேதா ளிகரொடு 

நாழிகைக் கணக்கர் நலம்பெறு கண்ணுளர் 

காவல் கணிகையர் ஆடல் கூத்தியர்

The cooks, musicians, the drummers in festivals and on the battle-field and buffoons (நகைவேழம்பர்) lived in houses of various types and dimensions suitable to their calling and circumstance.

நகைவே ழம்பரொடு வகைதெரி இருக்கையும்,

Beyond these streets where servants of royal household had their respective quarters, were the residences of those who trained horses and elephants. The open spaces where the horses were trained for military purposes are known as Cenduveli (செண்டுவெளி). This was the Pattina-p-pakkam or the urban portion of the city.

Between Maruvurpakkam and Pattinappakkam there was a large open area where the day-market (நாளங்காடி) was centrally situated in a site which presented the appearance of a vast plain between two opposing forces. In the market there were stalls for selling a variety of goods. Each stall floated a flag announcing the name of the article sold therein. The trees around provided cool shade and breeze.

இருபெரு வேந்தர் முனையிடம் போல 

இருபால் பகுதியின் இடைநிலம் ஆகிய

கடைகால் யாத்த மிடைமரச் சோலை (59 - 61)

In the centre of the area set apart for the market and where the main streets intersected, there was a temple dedicated to Chathukka Bootham (சதுக்கபூதம்), the Guardian Deity of the city.

Chathukka Bootham Wikipedia

Vellidai Mandram (வெள்ளிடை மன்றம்) is the square with the open space was used as warehouse stored with packages showing the names, symbols and the nature of the merchandise contained in them and the names of the owners. The place is neither guarded by the watch at the gates nor iron bolts on the door. Stealing a package would be very difficult.

Elanchi Mandram (இலஞ்சி மன்றம்) is the square with the pool. Hunchbacks, the dwarfs, the dumbs, the deafs and the lepers who bathe in this pool are cured of their deformities and acquire attractive complexion. They then gratefully circumambulate the square.

Nedungal Mandram PC Flickriver

Nedungal Mandram (நெடுங்கல் மன்றம்) is the square with the tall and bright stone pillar. People drugged to madness by enemies; those who have consumed poisonous food and shiver due to pain; those who are suffering from snake bite; and those who suffer under the influence of devils would go around the stone pillar and worship it in order to get cured from the afflictions.     

Paavai Mandram (பாவை மன்றம்) is the place of justice and if injustice is done to 'Paavai' (idol) by people they would certainly shed tears.

Kotrappandal (கொற்றபந்தல்) was the ornamental shamiana presented by the king of the 'Vajra' country (வஜ்ர நாடு).

The town also had well laid out gardens like Elavanthikai Cholai (இலவந்திகை சோலை), Uyyavanam (உய்யவனம்), Champapathyvanam (சம்பாபதிவனம்) and Kaverivanam (காவேரி வானம்).  Temples for Shiva, Chadukka Boodham, Indra, Balarama, Surya (Sun), Machathan, Chandra (Moon), Tirumal (Vishnu) and Arugan (Jain) where there besides Buddha stupa and seven Buddha Viharas, Champapathy Amman temple, brick idols and Ulagu Arivai Mandram (உலகு அரிவை மன்றம்).

A Buddhist vihara and a chaitya were also located in the area. Pattinappalai refers to people from various countries residing amicably at Puhar. Manimekalai refers to artisans from the Magadha, Avanti and Maratta countries.and also Greek sculptors Yavanat taccars working at Kaveripattinam.

How to get there?

By Road

Kaveripoompattinam is well-connected to a number of neighboring towns by network of roads  Sirkali (21 km) and Mayiladuthurai (23.7 Km).

By Rail

Sirkali (21 km)  and Vaithisvaran kovil (17 km), Mayiladuturai (23.7 km) Railway Stations are the very nearby railway stations. However Thanjavur Railway Station is major railway station 92 km near to Kaveripoompattinam 

By Air

Near by Airports: Chennai Airport ( 226 km), Madurai Airport (265 km)

Reference

1. ASI set up centre to showcase relics of ancient port city. Times of India. March 25, 2009.
2. Buddhadatta Wikipedia
3. Gaur A. S. and Sundaresh, Underwater Exploration off Poompuhar and possible causes of its Submergence, 1998, Puratattva, 28: 84-90.
4. Glad Tidings: The Lost City Poompuhar. Peepal Prodigy School. (http://www.peepalprodigy.com/glad-tidings-the-lost-city-poompuhar/)
5. History of Poompuhar. Archaeological Excavations. Blogspot. January 11, 2011 (http://archaeologyexcavations.blogspot.in/2011/01/history-of-poompuhar.html?m=1)
6. Indian history: What is the history behind Poompuhar in Indian history? Quora. (https://www.quora.com/Indian-history-What-is-the-history-behind-Poompuhar-in-Indian-history)
7. Inside Story: In search of a lost city. Lakshmi Sharath. The Hindu Metroplus. October 7, 2011 (http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/inside-story-in-search-of-a-lost-city/article2517975.ece)
8. Kaveripoompattinam (http://210.212.62.26/pdf_files/books/Kaveripoompattinam.pdf)
9. Pattinappalai ( A Note on Poem & Translation ) by Devendran B. International Institute of Tamil Studies. 068 - December 2005  (http://www.ulakaththamizh.org/JOTSArticle.aspx?id=558)
10. Poompuhar-Ancient Chola city in Tamil Nadu, India,Kumari Kundam. Hinduism and Sanadan Dharma. April 5, 2015. (https://pparihar.com/2015/04/05/poompuhar-ancient-chola-city-in-tamil-naduindiakumari-kundam/)
11. Poompuhar. Department of Archaeology. (http://www.tnarch.gov.in/excavation/poo.htm)
12. Poompuhar. Tamil Nadu Tourism. (http://www.tamilnadutourism.org/places/citiestowns/Poompuhar.aspx)
13. South India and Buddhagosa. Buddhagosa. August, 18, 2010 (http://ghosagvp.blogspot.in/2010_08_01_archive.html)
14. Tourism in Poompuhar Tourism of India (http://www.tourism-of-india.com/poompuhar-tour/)
15. பட்டினப்பாலை. கடியலூர் உருத்திரங் கண்ணனார் Project Madurai. (http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0077.html)
16. சதுக்கபூதம் Wikipedia

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